Month: May 2016

Social Policy and The Family – Topic Overview

Last Updated on May 17, 2017 by

Families and Households – Topic 6 – Social Policy

Overview of the topic

You need to be able to assess a range of policies using three key perspectives

• The New Right

• New Labour

• Feminism (Liberal and Radical)

Some of the policies you need to know about –

• Changes to the Divorce law

• Tax breaks for married couples

• Maternity and paternity pay

• Civil Partnerships

• Sure Start – early years child care

Key ‘test yourself’ questions (basic knowledge)

• Identify three social policies that might have led to increasing family diversity

• Identify three social policies that have ‘extended childhood’ (links to last topic)

Essays

Assess the New Right’s perspective on the relationship between Social Policy and The Family (20)

Assess the view that the main function of laws and policies on families and households is to reproduce patriarchy (20)

The Sociology of Childhood – Topic Overview

Last Updated on May 17, 2017 by

Subtopics

5.1 – To what extent is ‘childhood socially constructed’

5.2 – The March of Progress view of childhood (and parenting) – The Child Centred Family and Society?

5.3 – Toxic Childhood and Paranoid Parenting – Criticisms of ‘The March of Progress View’

5.4 – Is Childhood Disappearing?

5.5 – Reasons for changes to childhood and parenting practices

Key Concepts

• The social construction of childhood

• The golden age of childhood

• Child centred society

• The cult of childhood

• The March of progress view

• Conflict perspective

• Child liberationism

• Age patriarchy

• Acting up

• Acting down

• The disappearance of childhood

• Toxic childhood

Selected Short answer questions

• Suggest three ways in which children are viewed in modern western societies

• Identify two ways in which children’s live are marked out as being separate from adults

• Suggest two ways in which notions of childhood are different in different cultures

• Explain two ways in which childhood differed in the middle ages compared with today

• Suggest three reasons why the position of children has changed over time

• Explain one way in which industrialisation lead to the position of children in society changing

• Suggest two ways in which children’s positions have improved in recent years

• Briefly outline two ways in which gender inequalities exist between different types of children

• Suggest two examples of ethnic inequalities between children

• Suggest two examples.. nationality/ class/ ethnicity/ gender

• Suggest three ways in which adults control children in modern society

• Suggest two ways in which children resist the status of ‘child’

• Suggest two pieces of evidence that childhood is disappearing

• Suggest two reasons why childhood may me disappearing

• Suggest two pieces of evidence that suggest the boundaries between adults and children are stronger than ever

Possible Essays

Assess the view that childhood is disappearing (24)

Examine Sociological Perspectives on changes to childbearing and parenting (24)

Gender Roles, Domestic Labour and Power Relationships – Topic Overview

Last Updated on May 17, 2017 by

Families and Households Topic 4 – Changes within the family

Gender Roles, Domestic Labour and Power Relationships

Overview of the topic and sub-topics

In this topic we look at the extent to which relationships between men and women have become more equal, focussing on the following three areas:

4.1. To what extent are gender roles characterised by equality?

4.2. To what extent is the Domestic Division of Labour characterised by equality?

4.3. Issues of Power and Control in Relationships

4.4. To what extent has women going into paid work resulted in greater equality within relationships?

Key Concepts

  • Conjugal roles

  • Segregated conjugal roles

  • Joint conjugal roles

  • Instrumental roles

  • Expressive roles

  • The symmetrical family

  • The ‘march of progress view’

  • The Domestic Division of Labour

  • The ‘New Man’

  • Dual burden

  • Domestic Violence

  • Intenstive Mothering

  • Superdads

  • Gender norms

  • Liberal Feminism

  • The commercialization of housework

  • Emotion work

  • Gender scripts

  • Triple shift

Selected Short Answer Questions

  • Suggest three ways in which families are becoming more ‘symmetrical’

  • Suggest three reasons why families may be becoming ‘more symmetrical’

  • Outline three pieces of evidence that criticize the view that the family is becoming more symmetrical

  • Suggest two reasons why a gendered division of labour still exists between some couples

  • Suggest three ways in women going into paid work has influenced domestic relationships

  • Suggest three ways in which men may still have more power than women in domestic relationships

  • Suggest three reasons why official statistics on domestic violence may be inaccurate

  • Suggest three reasons why domestic violence occurs

Possible Essay Questions

  • Examine the factors affecting power relations between couples (24)

  • Assess the view that modern relationships are becoming more symmetrical (24)

The Privatisation of Education

A summary of endogenous and exogenous privatisation in England and Wales since the 1988 Education Act, and evaluations.

Last Updated on November 23, 2022 by Karl Thompson

Education in England and Wales has become increasingly privatised since the 1980s. The 1988 Education Act introduced endogenous privatisation through marketisation and New Labour, the Coalition and the Tories since 2015 have pursued exogenous privatisation through setting up academies and getting more private companies involved with running educational services.

This post covers the following:

  • what is privisation?
  • State and private education in the U.K.
  • Increasing privatisation
  • Exogenous and Endogenous education
  • Arguments for the privatisation of education
  • Arguments against the privatisation of education.

What is Privatisation?

Privatisation is where services which were once owned and provided by the state are transferred to private companies, such as the transfer of educational assets and management to private companies, charities or religious institutions.

The UK government spends approximately £90 billion a year on education, which includes to costs of teacher’s salaries, support workers, educational resources, building and maintaining school buildings, and the cost of writing curriculums, examinations and inspections (OFSTED), which means there is plenty of stuff which could potentially be privatised.

Most aspects of education in the UK have traditionally been run by the state, and funded directly by the government with taxpayer’s money, managed by Local Education Authorities (local councils). However, with the increasing influence of Neoliberal and New Right ideas on education, there has been a trend towards the privatisation of important aspects of education, both in the UK and globally. In other words, increasing amounts of taxpayer’s money goes straight to private companies who provided educational services, rather than to Local Education Authorities.

Private and State Education in the UK

The U.K. has always had private schools, also known as independent schools. These are fee paying schools which are entirely funded by the parents (or other wealthy benefactors) who pay annual fees to send their children to them.

Only the very wealthiest of parents (7%) can afford to send their children to independent schools and most parents (93%) rely on state funded education, which is funded tax payers, which has been the case since the Foster Act introduced free education for all children from the age of 10 in 1870.

Successive education acts gradually expanded the scope of state education throughout the late 19th and early to mid 20th centuries and by the 1970s Britain had one of the most broad ranging comprehensive education systems in the world, delivering free education to every 5-16 year old entirely funded and delivered by the state and managed by Local Education (government) authorities.

During this time Independent schools continued to exist and wealthy parents were free to send their children to them if they could afford the fees, so we’ve always had a ‘purely private’ education system, just only available to the minority.

The Privatisation of State Education

When the New Right conservative government came to power in 1979 they looked at State education, thought it was inefficient and sub-standard compared to the quality of education being delivered by independent schools.

They started a process of privatising state education and this process continued under New Labour (1997-2010) and the Coalition Government (2010 – 2015) and has been carried on to the present day under the current New Right Conservative government.

Endogenous and Exogenous Privatisation

Ball and Youdell (2007) distinguish between endogenous privatisation (privatisation from outside) and exogenous privatisation (privatisation within the education system)

Endogenous privatisation involves the establishment of a market in education – giving parents the right to choose which schools to send their children to and making schools compete for pupils in a similar way to which companies compete for consumers.

Exogenous Privatisation involves both British and international companies taking over different aspects of the UK education system, so the government gives money to private companies to run services related to education rather than the state running these services directly.

Endogenous Privatisation

Endogenous privatisation refers to ‘privatisation within the education system’ – it involves the introduction of free-market principles into the day to day running of schools. This is basically marketization and includes the following:

  • Making schools compete for pupils so they become like businesses
  • Giving parents choice so they become consumers (open enrolment)
  • Linking school funding to success rates (formula funding)
  • Introducing performance related pay for teachers
  • Allowing successful schools to take over and manage failing schools.

Broadly speaking endogenous privatisation was achieved through the 1988 Education Act, and was just tweaked to run more efficiently in following decades (for example by allowing successful academies to take over failing schools and by tweaking league tables so that schools couldn’t ‘game’ them).

Refer to the post on the 1988 Education act for the strengths and limitations of this type of privatisation!

Exogenous Privatisation

Exogenous privatisation is where private companies take over the running of aspects of educational services from the state.

Exogenous privatisation is what we’ve seen a lot more of since the New Labour government came to power in 1997 and introduced academies and then went on to outsource a lot of education services to private companies, a process which has been continued since and to the present day.

Examples of exogenous privatisation include…

  • The setting up of Academies. Since New Labour, the establishment of Academies has meant greater involvement of the private sector in running schools. Academies are allowed to seek 10% of their funding from businesses or charities, which increases the influence of private interests over the running of the school, and some recent academy chains such as the Academies Enterprise Trust are run by private companies, and managed by people with a background in business, rather than people with a background in teaching.
  • The Building and maintaining school buildings – Under New Labour A programme of new buildings for schools was financed through the Private Finance Initiative (PFI). Private companies did the building, but in return were given contracts to repay the investment and provided maintenance for 25-35 years. The colleges, schools or local education authorities had to pay the ongoing costs.
  • Running examination systems – The UK’s largest examinations body Edexcel is run by the Global Corporation Pearsons. Pearsons runs the exam boards in over 70 countries, meaning it sets the exams, it pays the examiners, it runs the training courses which teachers need to attend to understand the assessment criteria, and increasingly it writes the text books.
  • The Expansion of the Education Services Industry more generally. This is related to the above point – There are more International Corporations involved in education than ever before – two obvious examples include Google and Apple, both of which are well poised to play an increasing role in providing educational services for a profit.

Arguments for Privatisation

The main perspectives which argue for privatising education are Neoliberalism and The New Right.

The Neoliberal/ New Right argument is that state-run education is inefficient. They argue that the state’s involvement leads to ‘bureaucratic self-interest’, the stifling of initiative and low-standards. To overcome these problems the education system must be privatised, and New Right Policies have led to greater internal and external privatisation.

The main argument for endogenous privatisation is that the introduction of Marketisation within education has increased competition between schools and driven up standards.

The main argument for exogenous privatisation is that private companies are used to keeping costs down and will run certain aspects of the education system more efficiently than Local Education Authorities, even if they make a profit. Thus it’s a win-win situation for the public and the companies.

Arguments against the Privatisation of Education

If private companies have an increasing role in running the education system this may change the type of knowledge which pupils are taught – with more of an emphasis on maths and less of an emphasis on critical humanities subjects which aren’t as profitable. Thus a narrowing of the curriculum might be the result

Stephan Ball has also referred to what he sees as the cola-isation of schools – The private sector also increasingly penetrates schools through vending machines and the development of brand loyalty through logos and sponsorships.

There might be an increasing inequality of educational provision as private companies cherry pick the best schools to take over and leave the worst schools under Local Education Authority Control.

If we want universal education for all in our current very unequal society, the state probably has to be involved in some way. If we abandoned state education altogether and moved to a purely independent school system based on fees then millions of children would get no education at all because millions of parents lack the means to pay fees because they are too poor.

Simon et al (2022) (1) compared for profit early years providers with not for profit early years providers in England and Wales during the period of 2014-2018. They found that private providers were far more likely to have high levels of debt, poor accounting and spent less on wages proportionate to the funding they received from government.

They theorised that for profit nursery chains were deliberately putting nurseries at risk of bankruptcy in order to extract government money to parent companies. (Presumably if the nurseries did go bankrupt the government would just have to bail them out!).

The main perspective which criticises the privatisation of education is Marxism.

Signposting

For more links to my posts on the sociology of education please see this page, which follows the AQA A-level specification.

To return to the homepage – revisesociology.com

Selection Policies in Education

Last Updated on September 16, 2021 by

Selective Education policies are those which allow schools to select pupils on the basis of academic ability or other criteria. The classic example of a selective education policy was the 1944 Education Act which introduced the 11 plus test and pupils were selected on ability – those who passed were selected for grammar schools, those who failed went to secondary moderns.

The opposite of selective education is comprehensive education – where schools just take in any students, irrespective of criteria, however, factors such as ‘selection by mortgage’ means selection goes on by other means in a comprehensive system.

This post explores how the issue of selection applies to the following policies:

  • The 1944 Education Act/ Tripartite system
  • Comprehensives
  • The 1988 Education Act
  • Selection since 1988
  • Independent schools and selection.

It asks two questions:

  1. How do schools select pupils? (ability, aptitude, faith, catchment area, covert selection and social class)
  2. What are the effects of selection on equality of educational opportunity? (basically selection seems to benefit the middle classes)

Students might like to review policies on education before reading this post.

The 1944 Education Act

The 1944 Education act is a good example of a policy which selected students for different types of school by ability

The 1944 Education Act established three types of secondary school – Grammar, Technical and Secondary Modern. The three schools provided different types of education –

Grammar schools provided an academic education – all students would be entered for the new ‘O’ levels at age 15. 15 -20% of pupils attended grammar schools.

Technical schools provided a more vocational education – only about 5% of schools were technicals and they eventually faded out.

Secondary Moderns provided a more basic education, and pupils were not expected to sit exams. 80% of pupils attended these schools.

It was thought at the time that pupils had a certain level of ability which was fixed at age 11, and so a special Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.) test was designed to select which type of school different abilities of student would go into. Those who passed the 11+ went to grammar schools, those who failed went to secondary moderns.

Criticisms of the 1944 Education Act

– Pupil’s ‘intelligence level’ was not fixed at 11, ‘late developers’ missed out on the opportunity to get into a grammar school and sit exams.

– Those who attended secondary moderns were effectively labelled as failures.

– The system led to the reproduction of class inequality – typically middle class students passed the 11+ and went to grammar schools, got qualifications and higher paid jobs, and vice-versa for the working classes.

Comprehensive Schools

Introduced in 1965 Comprehensive Schools meant the he abolition of the 11+, and the end of grammar schools and secondary Moderns.

In 1965 the 11+ and the three types of school above were abolished, and so selection by ability at the age of 11 was effectively abolished too – grammar schools and secondary moderns were replaced by ‘comprehensive schools” – which means there is ‘one of type’ of school for all pupils, and these schools are not allowed to select by ability – they are forbidden from doing so by ‘The Schools Admissions Code’

Today, although many schools are called ‘Academies’ or ‘Free Schools’ or ‘Faith Schools’, they are all effectively comprehensives, and so do not select on the basis of ability.

Selection Policies since the 1988 Education Act

The 1988 Education Act introduced open enrolment – in which parents are allowed to apply for a place in any school in any area. A a result the best schools become over-subscribed, which means popular schools have to have policies in place to select students. The Schools Admissions Code states that schools cannot select on the basis of social class, but covert selection means that they often do just this!

Selection policies in oversubscribed schools

If a school is oversubscribed then pupils are selected on the basis of certain criteria, whicih much comply with the School Admission Code. The following are the most commonly used criteria for selecting students:

1. Selection by Catchment Area – the closer a student lives to the school, the more likely they are to get into the school.

2. Sibling Policies – those with brother’s and sisters who already attend the school are more likely to get a place

3. Selection by Faith – this only applies to faith schools – faith schools may select a proportion (but not all) of their pupils on the basis of religious belief and the commitment of their parents (how often they attend church for example).

4. Selection By Aptitude – where pupils are selected on the basis of their ‘aptitude’ in certain subjects. Most schools today are ‘Specialist schools’ – which means they ‘specialise’ in a certain subject and are allowed to select up to 10% of their pupils on the basis of their aptitude in a certain subject.

Criticisms of Admissions and Selection Policies since 1988

One major criticism of selection by catchment area is that this results in selection by mortgage – the house prices near to the best schools increase, and so over the years, only wealthier parents can afford to move into the catchment areas of the best schools.

Tough and Brooks (2007) use the term ‘covert selection’ to describe the process whereby schools try to discourage parents from lower socio-economic backgrounds from applying by doing such things as making school literature difficult to understand, having lengthy application forms, not publicising the school in poorer neighbourhoods, and requiring parents to buy expensive school uniforms. The end result of this is that middle class parents are more likely to apply for the best schools (because they have sufficient cultural capital to be able to complete the application process) and lower class parents are pushed out of the best (oversubscribed) schools.

Selection since 2010 – The Pupil Premium

One recent policy change which encourages schools to select disadvantaged pulses on the basis of low household income is the Pupil Premium – schools selecting these pupils get an extra £600 per year per student. NB This represents a recent modification to the school’s selection code, and is one of the few elements of selection policy which may do something to reduce inequality in education, rather than increase it!

Finally – Don’t forget Independent Schools

It’s worth mentioning that 7% of children attend independent, or fee paying schools – many of these schools will have admissions tests (like to old grammar schools) but of course selection is initially based on the ability of parents to pay – and the most expensive schools in the country cost in excess of £30K a year in fees.

Signposting

This post has primarily been written for students of A-level sociology and this topic is part of the compulsory education module which students will usually study in their first year.

Please click here to return to the homepage – ReviseSociology.com

Education and Ethnicity – Knowledge Check List

Last Updated on May 15, 2016 by Karl Thompson

Knowledge checklist

Key concepts – You need to be able to define the following key concepts, explain how they are related to class and educational achievement, and asses their relative importance in explaining ethnic differences in educational achievement

  • Social class

  • Cultural deprivation

  • Material deprivation

  • Linguistic deprivation

  • The ethnocentric curriculum

  • Institutional racism

  • The A-C economy

  • Pupil subcultures

  • Labeling

  • The self fulfilling prophecy

Key research studies

  • Steve Strand – the Longitudinal study

  • Crozier – some Asian parents keep their distance

  • David Gilborn – teacher labelling

  • Cecile Wright – teacher labelling

  • Mac An Ghail – pupil subcultures

  • Tony Sewell – pupil subcultures

  • Gilborn and Youdell – the A-C economy

Sample short answer questions

  • Suggest three home based cultural factors which may account for why Chinese and Indian children outperform other ethnic groups (6)

  • Suggest three ways in which the school curriculum may be said to be ethnocentric (6)

  • Suggest two criticisms of labeling theory (4)

Sample essay questions

  • Briefly examine the relationship between cultural factors and ethnic differences in educational achievement (12)

  • Using material from item A and elsewhere, assess the claim that ‘ethnic difference in educational achievement are primarily the result of in-school factors’ (20)

Gender and Education – Knowledge Check List

Last Updated on May 11, 2016 by Karl Thompson

Main Sub Topics
·         Gender and Differential Educational Achievement.

·         Why are girls outperforming boys?

·         Why are boys ‘underachieving’ compared to girls?

·         Gender and Subject Choice

·         Why do girls and boys choose different subjects?

·         The extent to which processes within school reinforce traditional masculine and feminine ‘gender identities’

Selected Concepts you Need to Know  

  • Feminism
  • The gender gap
  • Service sector
  • Primary socialisation
  • Crisis of masculinity
  • Feminisation of education
  • Gendered subject domains
  • Male gaze
  • Gender stereotyping
  • Ladette culture
  • Anti-school subculture
  • Pro school subculture
  • Verbal abuse
  • Gender identity

Selected Short Answer Questions

  • Define the term ‘crisis of masculinity’ (2)
  • Using one example explain how traditional gender-identities might be reinforced within education (2)
  • Outline three in-school factors which might influence the subjects which girls and boys choose (6)
  • Outline and briefly explain how two external factors have resulted in girls outperforming boys’ in education (10)
Possible (QUITE NASTY) Essay Questions
Assess the argument that the feminisation of education is main reason for male underachievement in education (20)

Assess the view that the gender gap in education has been over exaggerated (20)

 

Social Class and Educational Achievement – Knowledge Check List

Main Sub-Topics

  • Intro – How achievement varies by social class background
  • Material deprivation and educational achievement.
  • Cultural deprivation theory and educational achievement
  • Cultural capital theory and educational achievement
  • In school processes and how these effect achievement
  • How education policies affect educational achievement by social class

Selected Key Concepts

  • Social Class
  • Educational Attainment
  • Cultural Deprivation
  • Immediate Gratification
  • Deferred Gratification
  • Elaborated Speech Code
  • Restricted Speech Code
  • Fatalistic
  • NEETs
  • Material Deprivation
  • Social Capital
  • Material Capital
  • The Ideal Pupil
  • Counter School Culture
  • Streaming
  • Compensatory Education

Selected Short Answer Questions

  • Define what is meant by the term ‘material deprivation’ (2)
  • Using one example explain how cultural deprivation effects educational achievement (2)
  • Outline three ways in which material deprivation can affect educational achievement (6)
  • Outline and briefly explain two ways in which cultural capital can give an advantage to some pupils in education (10)

Selected Essay Questions

  • Assess the argument that cultural factors are more important that material factors when explaining social class and achievement. (20)
  • Assess the view that home factors are more important than in-school factors when explaining differential achievement by social class (20)

Education Policies – Knowledge Check-List

The Main ‘Waves’ of Education Policies

  • 1944 – The Tripartite System
  • 1965 – Comprehensivisation
  • 1988 – The 1988 Education Reform Act
  • 1997 – New Labour’s Education Policies
  • 2010 – The Coalition and the New New Right’s Education Policies

Possible Issues Questions Might Focus On 

  • To what extent have policies raised standards in education?
  • To what extent have policies improved equality of opportunity?
  • Perspectives on selection as an educational policy
  • Perspectives on the increased privatisation of education
  • How is globalisation affecting educational and educational policy?
Some Concepts and specific policies you need know about
In the context of education, briefly explain what is meant by….

·         The Tripartite system

·         Comprehensivisation

·         Marketisation

·         Parentocracy

·         The New Right

·         League Tables

·         The National Curriculum

·         Selection by mortgage

·         Teaching to the test

·         Polarisation

·         Sink schools

 ·         The school-parent alliance

·         Disconnected choosers and skilled choosers

·         Cultural and social capital

·         Academies

·         Free Schools

·         Sure Start

·         Education Maintenance Allowance

·         Vocationalism

·         Modern Apprenticeships

·         Compensatory education

·         Faith schools

·         Free schools

Possible Outline and Essay Questions

  • Outline two ways in which educational policies since 1988 have aimed to create a market in education (10)
  • Outline two consequences of the increased privatisation of education (10)
  • Assess the view that educational policies since 1988 have failed to improve equality of

Perspectives on the Role of Education – Knowledge Check- List

What you need to know for the perspectives on education topic for the AQA’s A-level sociology

Last Updated on October 10, 2022 by Karl Thompson

This is normally the first topic taught as part of the sociology of education module within A-level sociology.

Perspectives on the role of education covers mainly bullet point one on the AQA A-level sociology specification on the role of education as it relates to society and the economy.

Perspectives on education are assessed as part of the AQA’s SCLY1 Paper one: Education and Theory and Methods paper – one of three papers outlined on my revision exam and advice page.

Perspectives on Education: Main Sub Topics

  • The Functionalist Perspective
  • The Marxist Perspective
  • The Neoliberal and New Right Perspective
  • The Post-Modernist Perspective
  • The Impact of Globalisation on Education
  • The relationship between education, the economy and work

Key concepts 

You need to be able to define the following key concepts, explain how they are related to class and educational achievement, and asses their relative importance in explaining ethnic differences in educational achievement

  • Ideological state apparatus
  • Repressive state apparatus
  • Ideological tool
  • Dominant ideology
  • Correspondence theory
  • The hidden/informal curriculum
  • Marketisation
  • Parentocracy
  • Voucher System
  • Value consensus
  • Role allocation
  • Particularistic
  • Universalistic
  • Specialist skills
  • Social solidarity
  • Meritocracy
  • National identity

For definitions of these key concepts please see my education key concepts page.

Selected Short Answer Questions

There are three types of question – a four and a six mark which will ask you to outline two things and a 10 mark ‘analyse using the item’ question.

  • Outline two ways in which education might transmit the dominant ideology according to Marxists (4 marks)
  • Outline two ways in which education might benefit males according to feminists (4 marks)
  • Outline three positive functions of education according to functionalists (6 marks)
  • Outline two similarities between the Functionalist and New Right perspectives on education (4 marks)
  • (Applying material from item B) analyse two ways in which education might contribute to the maintenance of society as a whole (10 marks)
  • (Applying material from item B and elsewhere analyse two ways in which the education system has changed in response to globalisation (10 marks)
  • Applying material from Item A, analyse two effects of increased parental choice on pupils’ experience of education (10 marks).

Possible 30 Mark Essay Questions on Education

As with the 10 mark questions you will get an item for the essay questions which you must refer to in your answer for maximum possible marks!

(Using material from the item and elsewhere) Evaluate sociological explanations of the role of education in transmitting ideas and values (30)

(Using material from the item and elsewhere) Evaluate the Marxist Perspective on the Role of Education in Society (30)

Assess the point of view that education creates inequality in society. (20)

Signposting and other relevant posts:

For links to further posts on perspectives on education please see my sociology of education page.

For advice on how to answer short answer questions and the essay questions above you might like to see my page on revision and exam advice, the paper 1 section!

Please click here to return to the homepage – ReviseSociology.com