Culture is free from structure – it is more Diverse and Fragmented
Relationships more diverse
More Individual Freedom to shape identities
Media – more global, two- way, hyper reality (Baudrillard)
Giddens:
There is a clear global, modernist institutional structure -Heavy Capitalism still exists, in the developing world, service sector economies are dependent on it.
Against postmodernists, Giddens argues that Nation States remain powerful -Nation states are more ‘reflexive’ today – they try to ‘steer’ events in the future in the light of existing and continually updating (imperfect) knowledge.
Against Postmodernists Giddens argues that In Late Modern (not Post-modern) Society, there is a ‘duality of structure’- people are not just ‘free’ to do whatever they want – their freedom comes from existing structures
In terms of the self – Identity is no longer a given –identity becomes a task
Giddens rejects the concept of hyperreality – the main significance of the media is that it makes us more aware of diversity and of the fact that there are many different ways of living.
Ideas about Knowledge
Critique of the Enlightenment (Foucault)
Incredulity towards Metanarratives (Lyotard)
We need scientific and sociological knowledge to ‘colonise the future’ – to reduce risks from things such as global warming and terrorism for example –
however, knowledge can never be perfect, but we still need to use knowledge in order to ‘steer society’ forwards, thus we just have to do our best to be as objective as possible when doing social and scientific research and to use the most reliable, valid, and representative data there is to try and address social problems.
Research Methods Implications
Criticise Positivist research which aims to be objective
Deconstruction and Destabilising Theory
Foucault researched the history of deviance (transgression) to highlight the arbitrary nature of ‘normal’ and ‘deviant’ categories –
Foucault argued that research should be about ‘mining’ history to find ideas which are useful to you personally, and which help you to choose how to live now.
Research topics and methods should be diverse and experimental
No one is in a position to claim one research topic or method is more valid than any other can be anything the researcher wants or finds personally useful.
Research should not attempt to generalise.
There are significant global problems (manufactured risks) which we all face and none of us can escape – e.g. Global Warming. These are real, objectively existing problems, not hyperreal, and they bind us together, even if many of us fail to accept this. The role of Sociology could involve –
Doing research to help solve complex global problems (links to Positivism, also see Beck’s Risk Society)
Helping people to realise that they are still dependent on ‘structures’ and dispelling the ‘myth of total individual freedom’ (links to Functionalism)
– Encouraging people to get more involved with identity politics – (links to Marxism/ Feminism)
Unfortunately grids don’t cut and past that well into WordPress. A much neater version of the above grid can be found in my Theory and Methods Revision Notes, along with summaries of all the other perspectives too…
Technological changes, globalisation and the move from Modernity to Postmodernity
Two key processes which underpin the move from ‘Modernity’ to ‘Postmodernity’ are technological changes and globalisation. The development of satellite communications and transport technologies seem to be the main causes of globalisation, or the increasing interconnectedness of people across the world. Today we live in a truly global economy with many products in the UK produced in other parts of the world, and many British products being exported to other countries. Cultural globalisation has also taken place – with more people moving and communicating with each other across the world. We also face a number of shared global problems – such as new risky technologies and ecological problems.There are many different perspectives on Globalisation, but it is hard to argue that it is happening and that we have moved into a post-modern era as a result
Modernity (1650 – 1970s ish)
Postmodernity 1970s – Present Day
Industrial and Economic Contexts
Industrial economies – Production is central – jobs for life
Nation State, most people vote and are in trades unions
Organised/ Heavy Capitalism and the Welfare State
Post-Industrial, service sector, portfolio workers and consumption is central
Culture reflects the underlying class and patriarchal structures
Nuclear family the norm, marriage for life
Identities shaped/ constrained by class position/ sex. (*)
Media – one way communication, reflects ‘reality’
Culture is free from structure – it is more Diverse and Fragmented
Relationships more diverse
More Individual Freedom to shape identities
Media – more global, two- way, hyperreality (Baudrillard)
Attitudes to Knowledge
Enlightenment – Science/ Objective Knowledge
Truth and Progress
Critique of the Enlightenment (Foucault)
Incredulity towards Metanarratives (Lyotard)
The role of Sociology
Positivism/ Functionalism – doing research to find how societies function and gradually building a better world
Marxism/ Feminism – concerned with emancipation – freeing individuals from oppression.
Narrative histories (Foucault) done on an individual basis
Deconstruction (Lyotard) and Destabilising Theory (Judith Butler)
Unfortunately grids don’t cut and past that well into WordPress. A much neater version of the above grid can be found in my Theory and Methods Revision Notes, along with summaries of all the other perspectives too…
A summary of Webers’ Verstehen Goffman’s Dramaturgical Theory, Symbolic Interactionism and and Labellling.
Unlike structural theorists, social action theorists argue that people’s behaviour and life-chances are not determined by their social background. Instead, social action theorists emphasises the role of the active individual and interactions between people in shaping personal identity and in turn the wider society. In order to understand human action we need to uncover the individual’s own motives for acting.
This post provides a summary of the key ideas of Social Action Theory for A-level sociology students studying the theory and methods topic in their second year of study, AQA focus.
Max Weber: Verstehen, and Social Change
Observation alone is not enough to understand human action, we need empathetic understanding. Gaining Verstehen is the main point of Sociology.
Understanding individual motives is crucial for understanding changes to the social structure (as illustrated in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism).
Weber still attempted to make generalisations about types of motive for action – there are four main types of motive for action – Instrumentally rational, value rational, traditional action and affectual action
Different societies and different groups emphasise the importance of different types of ‘general motive’ for action’ – so society still affects individual motives, but in a general way.
Symbolic Interactionism
People’s self-concepts are based on their understanding of how others perceive them (the looking glass self).
We act towards others on the basis of how we interpret their symbolic action, the same action can be interpreted differently by different people – we need to understand these specific meanings to understanding people’s actions.
We ‘are constantly ‘taking on the role of the other’ – thinking about how people see us and reacting accordingly, this is very much an active, conscious process.
Each of us has an idea in the back of our minds of ‘the generalised other’ – which is basically society – what society expects of us, which consists of different norms and values associated with different roles in society.
These social roles are not specific or fixed; they can be interpreted in various different ways.
Goffman’s Dramaturgical Theory
People are actors on a ‘social stage’ who actively create an impression of themselves
When we act in the social world, we put on a ‘front’ in order to project a certain image of ourselves (call this part of our ‘social identity’
To create this front we manipulate the setting in which we perform (e.g. our living room), our appearance (e.g. our clothes) and our manner (our emotional demeanour).
Impression management involves projecting an ‘idealised image’ of ourselves,
We must be constantly on our guard to practice ‘expressive control’ when on the social stage.
Acting out social roles is quite demanding and so in addition to the front-stage aspect of our lives, we also have back-stage areas where we can drop our front and be more relaxed, closer to our ‘true-selves’
Most acting is neither fully ‘sincere’ nor fully ‘contrived’ and most people oscillate between sincerity and cynicism throughout the day and throughout the role they are playing.
Labelling Theory
Focuses on how the definitions (meanings) people impose on situations or on other people can have real consequences (even if those definitions are not based in reality)
People in power generally have more ability to impose their definitions on situations than the powerless and make these labels have consequences compared to working class youths. Labelling theory
We still need to understand where people are located in the power-structure of society to fully understand the process of labelling and identity construction.
Positive Evaluations of Social Action Theory
Recognises that people are complex and active and have their own diverse meanings and motives for acting
Overcomes the determinism found in structural theories such as Marxism which tend to see individuals as passive
Goffman’s dramaturgical theory seems especially useful today in the age of Social Media
Labelling Theory recognises the importance of micro-level interactions in shaping people’s identities, and the fact that people in power are often more able to ‘define the situation’.
In-depth research methods associated with social action theory often have high valid
Criticisms of Social Action Theory
It doesn’t pay sufficient attention to how social structures constrain action – for example, material deprivation can have a real, objective impact on your ability to well at school, thus failure is not just all about labelling.
Tends to ignore power-distribution in society – it can’t explain patterns in class, gender, ethnicity.
If people are so active, then why do so many people choose to be so normal?
Labelling theory can also be criticised for being deterministic
The small-scale methods associated with this theory can equally be criticised for lacking reliability and
Signposting and Related Posts
Social Action theory is usually taught as part of the social theory aspect of the second year A-level sociology module in theory and methods, typically in contrast to the two structural theories Functionalism and Marxism, and is followed by (and in some ways is a pre-cursor of ) Postmodernism.
This post on teacher labelling and the self fulfilling prophecy, taught as part of the first year Education module provides a lot more depth on the micro-interactions which make up the whole process of labelling.
You might also like the following two posts which expand on other aspects of the notes above:
covering views on causes of inequalities, solutions, key thinkers and evaluations.
Liberal, Radical and Marxist and Feminism are the three main types of feminism, with different explanations for sex and gender inequalities and related strategies for social change.
This distinction between the three main types of feminism is common in A-level sociology and first year degree social studies, and it is also usual to add a fourth type which is postmodern (also known as difference) feminism.
Most contemporary feminists would balk at the idea of generalising Feminist theory into three (or four) basic types because part of Feminism is to resist the tendency towards categorising things, but for the purposes of A-level sociology, these three/ four are types what you need to know!
Liberal, Radical and Marxist Feminism: Simplified
Liberal Feminism – aims to achieve gender equality between men and women through social policy reforms, within the system.
Marxist Feminism – argues capitalism structures patriarchy, bringing down capitalism is the main goal.
Radical Feminism – patriarchy exists in all institutions. All women share common interests against all men, brining down patriarchy is the goal.
There follows below more detailed accounts of each of these three feminist theories with links as appropriate.
Liberal Feminism is the original form of Feminist theorising and activism, dating back to the time of Mary Wollonstonecraft.
The central aim of liberal feminism is to improve and defend women’s rights through identifying inequalities between men and women and reforming these inequalities.
Liberal Feminists believe that the main causes of gender inequality are ignorance and socialisation. They do not believe that social institutions are inherently patriarchal and believe in a “March of Progress” view of gender relations. They believe that men and women are gradually becoming more equal over time and that this trend will continue.
As evidence liberal feminists point to legal reforms they have campaigned for which have successfully promoted equality such as winning the vote for women and the sex discrimination act (1970).
Liberal Feminists are especially keen to emphasise the beneficial effects which women going into paid work has had on gender equality over the last 50 years especially: the pay gap is nearly 0 for women and men aged between 18-34 and dual earner households are now the main type of household in the UK and this is correlated with increased gender equality in other sectors of social life such as education and the family.
Within education, boys used to outperform girls, but now girls outperform boys in nearly every subject and at every level of education and within the family, evidence shows men are doing a greater share of domestic labour (housework, childcare), decision making is becoming more equal and that male and female children are socialised in a much more similar manner with similar aspirations.
Liberal feminists are the most likely to prefer positivist, statistical methods and have a tendency to measure progress towards gender equality using quantitative indicators such as the pay gap between men and women, educational achievement gaps and the proportions of men and women in parliament.
Liberal Feminists believe research can be value free and freed from malestream bias with sufficient care.
Solutions to remaining gender inequalities
Liberal Feminists do not seek revolutionary changes: they want changes to take place within the existing structure.
Greater equality for women is to be achieved through reform of the mainstream liberal democratic capitalist order and reform is mostly sort through official, legal means, especially through campaigning for equality legislation.
Examples of the reformist political campaigns that liberal feminists have focused on include:
Winning voting rights for women.
Equal pay legislation
Increasing financial independence for women.
Cultural changes which promote mutual respect.
Thus from a liberal feminist perspective, all the major barriers to gender equality have been broken down over the last century and since women now have equal opportunities to enter the workforce and politics, we have effectively achieved legal gender equality in the UK and there is very little else that needs to be done.
Only relatively minor changes need to be made to advance gender equality further, it’s a matter of tweaking social policy rather than radical and drastic systemic level changes.
We find Liberal Feminism embedded in mainstream political institutions such as the Equal Pay Commission and a major current focus of contemporary liberal feminism is the ‘glass ceiling’ as legislation hasn’t yet effectively narrowed the promotion prospects or differences in pay and bonuses between men and women at the higher end of professional life.
Evaluations of Liberal Feminism
On a positive note, Liberal Feminist ideas have probably had the most impact on women’s lives. It is hard to deny that gender equality has improved in many countries through reform rather than the more radical changes Marxist and Radical feminists argue we need.
Criticisms
One easy criticism of the liberal feminist view is that it is ethnocentric – it only really reflects the experiences of white, middle class women.
Liberal feminism tends to treat gender differences as sex differences. Liberal feminists campaign for equal rights between biologically female women and biologically male men, it has little or no interest in campaigning for greater gender equality in the broader sense of equality for people across sexualities or sexual identities. It focuses on biological sex, not issues of gay or trans equalities.
Liberal Feminism uncritically accepts male-centred constructions of the existing social order including definitions of what it means to be a human being. It accepts deeply held malestream concepts and divisions such as male/ female and sex/ gender divides, something which postmodernist feminists in particular object to.
Marxist Feminism
Marxist Feminism connects Marxist notions of the relations of production to social relations of biological reproduction, focusing on the way childbirth and child care have economic ramifications.
Marxist Feminists see the exploitative social relations of production as the main focus. Capitalism subordinates and exploits both the working classes and all women, both upper and lower class females.
The most exploited group is working class women who are exploited by the whole of the ruling class and working class men and a working class housewife’s work is exploited by both her husband and the broader forces of the capitalist economy.
In the mid twentieth century women were relatively marginalised from the public sphere (work and politics) and relatively confined to the private world of domestic work. Under capitalism the type of labour associated with the domestic sphere such as cooking, cleaning and tidying was not recognised as work at all, leading to the widespread view that women were merely consumers, dependent on the income from the ‘real work’ of their husbands.
A main focus for marxist feminists in the 1970s was ‘housework’ which was seen as the intersection of class and gender based modes of exploitation.
Housework was not regarded as real work, and thus unpaid, because of the structure of the capitalist system. It was primarily women who did this work for free, never pausing to think that they might even be paid for it. While male breadwinners benefited directly from the free labour of their female partners, the main beneficiary was the capitalist economy: women provided for the domestic needs of men so they could keep serving the needs of the system through doing paid work.
Essentially capitalism required that all women be put into the housewife role and be exploited, but this was disguised by an ideology that saw housework as naturally women’s work.
The increasing amount of women going into work is not interpreted as liberation from ‘domestic tyranny’ by Marxist feminists, but rather capitalism seeking out cheaper forms of labour to exploit.
Women are often found in low-paid, low-skilled, part-time, insecure work and the existence of a class of all women who are disadvantaged is a structural necessity for capitalism, so the relative disadvantages women face at work compared to men can’t be solved by legislation as liberal feminists claim.
Marxist Feminism: Key thinker
Fran Ansley (1972) argued women absorb the anger that would otherwise be directed at capitalism. Ansley argued women’s male partners are inevitably frustrated by the exploitation they experienced at work and women were the victims of this, including domestic violence. She famously coined the phrase ‘women as the takers of shit’ to describe their domestic roles.
(The Roots of Marxist Feminism)
Marxist (or more broadly socialist) feminism can trace its roots back to the late nineteenth century and has had a complex relationship to communist and socialist movements over the last century and a half.
Engel’s (1978/ 1884) pioneering work is the starting point for further attempts to formulate a materialist feminism that sought to apply Marxist concepts to understand the nature of sex and gender based exploitation.
Engels initially argued that throughout history women have been both economically and politically subordinated by men. Successive modes of production have been structured to control women in terms of their work and their reproductive capacities. Women have been exploited differently to men because of their capacity to give birth.
Marxist Feminism – solutions to gender Inequality
For Marxist Feminists, the solutions to gender inequality are economic – We need to tackle Capitalism to tackle Patriarchy. Softer solutions include paying women for childcare and housework – thus putting an economic value on what is still largely women’s work, stronger solutions include the abolition of Capitalism and the ushering in of Communism.
They are more sensitive to differences between women who belong to the ruling class and proletarian families. Marxist Feminists believe that there is considerable scope for co-operation between working class women and men and that both can work together.
Evaluations
Marxist feminism is too narrowly focused on issues of the economy and work and downplays issues which are not economic in nature.
Marxist feminism is reductionist in that it subordinates gender exploitation to economic exploitation within capitalism. One obviouscriticism of this idea is that women’s oppression within the family existed before capitalism and in communist societies.
Postmodernist feminists argue that there are more complex issues feminism needs to deal with surrounding gender and culture which Marxist feminists dismiss as just ideologies of capitalism.
Radical Feminism
Radical Feminism began to be influential in the late 1970s and argued that the focus of feminism should be on patriarchy, defined as a social order wholly and primarily structured around the interests of males.
For radical feminists patriarchy runs through multiple social institutions simultaneously: from politics through work, education and the family.
Patriarchy was seen to have its root in both physical and symbolic violence against women. Domestic violence was seen not as an accident arising from the dispositions of particular men, but a structural feature of the current family set up, and pornography was seen as a symbolic expression of a society centred around control of and hatred of women.
In essence many marxist concepts were reworked by radical feminists: social structural explanations, ideology and highlighting the hidden nature of oppression.
Against Liberal Feminists they argue that paid work has not been ‘liberating’. Instead women have acquired the ‘dual burden’ of paid work and unpaid housework and the family remains patriarchal – men benefit from women’s paid earnings and their domestic labour. Some Radical Feminists go further arguing that women suffer from the ‘triple shift’ where they have to do paid work, domestic work and ‘emotion work’ – being expected to take on the emotional burden of caring for children.
Rape, violence and pornography are also methods through which men have secured and maintained their power over women. (Andrea Dworkin, 1981). For evidence of this, Radical Feminists point to the ‘dark side of family life’ – According to the British Crime Survey domestic violence accounts for a sixth of all violent crime and nearly 1 in 4 women will experience DV at some point in their lifetime and women are much more likely to experience this than men..
Rosemarie Tong (1998) distinguishes between two groups of radical feminist:
Radical-libertarian feminists believe that it is both possible and desirable for gender differences to be eradicated, or at least greatly reduced, and aim for a state of androgyny in which men and women are not significantly different.
Radical-cultural feminists believe in the superiority of the feminine. According to Tong radical cultural feminists celebrate characteristics associated with femininity such as emotion, and are hostile to those characteristics associated with masculinity such as hierarchy.
Key Thinker: Kate millet
Kate Millet’s sexual politics (1) is one of the most famous works of this period in which she analysed the existence of patriarchy in eight different ways:
ideological
biological
sociological (social, such as in the family)
class
Economic and educational
Force (violence)
Myth and religion
psychological
Radical Feminism: Solutions to gender inequality
Radical Feminists argued there was a universal sisterhood of all women because women had common interests against all men and engaged in consciousness raising so that individual women could see how patriarchy really worked.
Radical Feminists see the traditional nuclear family as particularly patriarchal, and advocate its abolition and the establishment of alternative family structures and sexual relations.
The various alternatives suggested by Radical Feminists include separatism – women only communes, and matrifocal (female centred) households. Some also practise political Lesbianism and political celibacy as they view heterosexual relationships as “sleeping with the enemy.”
Radical feminists have often been actively involved in setting up and running refuges for women who are the victims of male violence.
Evaluations of Radical Feminism
It Ignores the progress that women have made in many areas e.g. work, controlling fertility, divorce.
The power of men is overstated primarily because of a failure to recognise differences in power between men, for example class based differences.
They failed to recognise the role of money in some forms of exploitation: pornography for example.
Postmodern Feminists criticise the idea that there is a universal sisterhood of all women with shared interests.
Signposting and Related Posts
I usually teach this as part of my introductory block in the very first two weeks of A-level sociology.
The richest 10% are 133 times wealthier than the poorest 10%. This post explores statistics on wealth and income inequalities in the UK
The wealthiest 10% of households in the UK are 133 times richer than the poorest 10% of households (1).
The disposable income of the richest 20% of households is 4.5 times greater than the poorest 20% (2).
Wealth Inequalities in the UK
In 2018-2022:
The richest 1% of households had a median wealth of more than £3.6 million.
The richest 10% of households had a median wealth of £1.9 million.
The poorest 10% of households had a median wealth of just £15,400.
This means the wealthiest 10% of households were 130 times richer than the poorest 10% of households. The wealthiest 10% were 233 times richer.
Components of wealth
As measured by the ONS wealth is made up of four main components:
Pensions
Property
Other physical assets
Cash savings
For the wealthiest households, private pensions make up a more significant portion of wealth. Pensions as a proportion of wealth becomes less significant the poorer the household is.
In middle-wealth households, property is the most significant proportion of wealth.
This probably means that for the ‘middle wealthy’ they are not as affluent as may appear. Most of these people will live in those households, no income is derived from that portion of their wealth. In contrast, pension wealth, which wealthier households have a lot more of, yields an income.
Trends in wealth distribution
The wealth of the richest 10% of households has decreased in the very long term. In 1900, the top 10% controlled over 50% of wealth. This declined to a low of 26.5% in 1970, but then increased to 38.7% in 2013. The proportion of wealth controlled by the top 10% has declined slightly over the last decade (3)
In 2021 the top 10% controlled 35.7% of wealth, compared to the bottom 50% who controlled only 20.4% of wealth.
According the Equality Trust, by 2023, the richest 50 families in the UK held more wealth than half of the UK population, comprising 33.5 million people.
Income inequalities in the UK 2022
Median equivalized disposable income for the richest 20% of households was £66002 in 2022, compared to £14508 for the poorest 20% of households (2).
This means the richest 20% of households had an income 4.5 times greater than the poorest 20% of households.
Disposable income is income after taxes and benefits. Equivalized means income is adjusted to take account of household composition because costs are different for single people, couples and families.
60% of this median income is £19409 which means that every single one of those households in the bottom quintile is in poverty, as are around half of the households in the second quintile.
It should be no surprise based on the above distribution that 13.4 million people or 20% of the population were living in poverty in 2020/2021.
The Joseph Rowntree Foundation also has measures of deep poverty, set at 50% of median income at £16174 a year and very deep poverty, at 40% or just under £13 000 a year.
Poverty has deepened in recent years, with more people falling into deep and very deep poverty. Based on the above distribution for example every household in the bottom quintile is in deep poverty, some will be in very deep poverty!
A more detailed income distribution
The Institute for Fiscal Studies has developed an online calculator where you can enter your income to see where you fit in to the distribution in the UK.
If you enter your income and costs you will show up as a red bar. (My screen capture below doesn’t show a red bar as I entered a fake high income, so my bar is off the scale to the right!).
What the graphic below shows is how many millions of people earn roughly what weekly income. Each bar represents an increase in income of around £7.
I put two arrows in to demonstrate that most people receive between £200 and £550 per week.
You can also see from the above bar chart that there are more people clustered towards the middle-left. Relatively few people have very high incomes!
The different shades of green are just to make the graphic easier to read.
All of the people in the first light shade of green to the left will classify as being in very deep poverty, with incomes of less than £190 a week.
Trends in income inequality
Disposable income inequality has increased considerably since 1977. As measured by the Gini Coefficient, income inequality has increased from 24.5% in 1977 to 34.7% in 2022 (4).
The Gini coefficient takes values between 0% and 100%, with higher values representing an increase in the level of inequality. A value of 0% indicates complete equality, a value of 100% complete inequality. A 100% score would mean one person (or household) has all the income.
Signposting and related posts
Poverty is a concept that is often linked with wealth (you might crudely say that poverty is the opposite of wealth).
Wealth and income inequalities are closely correlated with social class, although economic measurements are just one indicator of social class, which is a broader concept, also encompassing social and cultural capital (if we are going to use the latest social class survey – see here for an introduction to the concept of social class.
knowledge, understanding, application, analysis and evaluation!
There are three key skills you need to demonstrate in A level Sociology:
AO1: Knowledge and Understanding
AO2: Application
AO3: Analysis and Evaluation
‘AO‘ stands for ‘Assessment Objective’.
Knowledge and Understanding
This means knowledge and understanding of sociological theories, concepts and evidence
Application
This means applying sociological theories, concepts, evidence and research methods to a range of issues. It also means being able to apply material from the items that are attached to some questions!
Analyse and evaluate
You need to be able to analyse and evaluate concepts, evidence and research methods in order to:
present arguments
make judgements
draw conclusions.
Analysis means being able to pick apart arguments and evidence in a nuanced way and showing that you know the logic behind arguments, and how all the pieces of a theory fit together.
Evaluation means showing the strengths and limitation of research studies and theories.
Developing Skills in A-level Sociology
Below are eight specific ways you can demonstrate these skills in relation to sociological concepts, theories and evidence. They get progressively harder, sort of.
Knowledge and Understanding
AO1 – Define/ explain the theory or Concept AO1 – Give examples to illustrate this theory or concept
Application
AO2 – Apply the theory or concept – How far does the theory/ concept help you understand different aspects of social life? AO2 – Analyse – What are the key foundational ideas of the theory or the concept? AO2 – Analyse – How does the theory/ concept relate to other theories/ concepts – which are the most closely related, which the opposite?
Analysis and Evaluation
AO3 – Evaluate from other PERSPECTIVES – What would other perspectives say about the theory/ concept? (obviously this overlaps with no/.5 above AO3 – Evaluate – HISTORICAL CRITICISM – Is the theory/ concept dated? When was the concept developed? Is it still relevant today, or has society changed so much that it is no longer relevant? Has society changed in such a way that some aspects of the theory are now more relevant? AO3 – Evalaute – POWER/ BIAS/ VALUE FREEDOM? Who developed the concept/ theory – whose interests does it serve?
You also need to be able to evaluate research methods – but more of that later!
Signposting and Related Posts.
For more information on A-level sociology exam skills and exam advice please see my page on exams, essays and exam advice.
sociological perspectives are divided in structure/ action, consensus/ conflict, and modern/ postmodern.
Given that ‘society’ is complex and multi-layered, a key aspect of studying A-Level Sociology is being able to view society and social action through a number of different sociological perspectives, or lenses, because different sociologists (and different people in general) look upon the same society and see different realities.
For example, consider a busy street and imagine different people looking at that same street: a shopkeeper, a thief and a consumer. The shopkeeper sees profit, the thief victims and the consumer sees products to buy.
Sociology consists of various different perspectives, all of which look at society in different ways. All sociological perspectives have something valuable to offer to the individual who wishes to understand society and no one perspective is ‘right’ or ‘wrong’. It is up to the individual student to present positive and negative criticisms of sociological perspectives throughout the course.
Sociological Perspectives in A Level Sociology
There are three main dividing lines for sociological perspectives as taught within A-level sociology:
Social structure and social action perspectives.
Consensus and conflict perspectives
Modern and Postmodern perspectives.
Social Structure and Social Action perspectives
Some Sociologists, known as structural theorists, emphasise the importance of institutions in providing social stability and regulating social action. They argue that such institutions form a structure that shapes human action and makes it predictable.
Other Sociologists, known as social-action theorists, argue that individuals have more freedom than structural theorists suggest. They also argue that society is more fluid and some interactionists go as far as saying that there is no such thing as society, just billions of individual level interactions.
Examples of social action perspectives include social action theory and labelling theory.
Consensus and Conflict Perspectives
Sociological Perspectives are also divided into Consensus perspectives which argue that, generally speaking, society is characterised by harmony and agreement, and Conflict perspectives, which argue that society is better seen as being made up of competing groups, with the powerful controlling institutions in society and oppressing the powerless.
Functionalism and The New Right are consensus perspectives, Marxism and Feminism are conflict perspectives.
Modern and Postmodern Perspectives
Modernist perspectives include Functionalism, The New Right, Marxism and Feminism and believe in ‘social progress’. They believe that social research can reveal the truth about which types of societies are best and actively work to construct a better society through social policy and more radical means.
Postmodernists and to an extent Interactionists reject the idea of truth and the idea social progress is possible.
Sociological Perspectives summary grid
Below is a very brief summary grid including some of the main concepts within each of five main sociological perspectives…
Functionalism
Marxism
Feminism
Interactionism
Postmodernism
Norms and values, Socialisation, Value Consensus, Positive functions of institutions, Anomie
What reading should you do in order to prepare for studying an undergraduate degree in Sociology? This post recommends some introductory reading that you might like to do over the summer to get ahead before commencing the first year of your degree in sociology, or related discipline.
I also explore some of the differences between A-level and degree level sociology at the end of the post…
Good introductory text books for studying an undergraduate degree in sociology
You should read at least the introductory chapter to one of the text books below (preferably the one recommended by the university you most want to go to), to give yourself an idea of the core themes in degree level Sociology.
The two books below are on Globalisation, one of the most important concepts which Sociology deals with, and they are written by two of the leading Sociologists in the world today, at least they were until Bauman died in January 2017 (RIP!)
Giddens (2002) Runaway World (Kindle edition is less than £4)
Podcasts/ Videos and blogs – to you keep up to date with contemporary sociology
You won’t be able to keep up with everything, so for the area of Sociology you are most interested in – search for that topic on any of the forums below…
‘Thinking Allowed’ on Radio 4 – This is a weekly 30 minute sociology Podcast, which typically covers two pieces of research from two different Sociologists. Their archive is excellent.
‘TED’ talks are interdisciplinary but there is a lot of Sociology in here if you search – TED talks are 20 minutes long, but you can nearly always skip the first few minutes. NB – The most popular TED talk is Ken Robinson’s ‘How Schools Kill Creativity’
The London School of Economics blog is more specifically political/ economic/ sociological than either of the above sites, but has some good updates on Sociological research.
Bristol is ranked number two for sociology in the U.K. Below I reproduce the University of Bristol’s recommended introductory reading list for its various core introductory courses for 2018, which are the bold headings below.
The Sociological Imagination
Z Bauman and T May, 2001, Thinking Sociologically, Oxford: Blackwell.
R Jenkins, 2002, Foundations of Sociology, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.
N Abercrombie, 2004, Sociology, Cambridge: Polity.
Key Social Thinkers
Calhoun, C., Classical Sociological Theory
Craib, I., Classical Social Theory
Fevre, R., and Bancroft, A., Dead White Men and Other Important People: sociology’s big ideas
Giddens, A., Capitalism And Modern Social Theory
McIntosh, I., Classical Sociological Theory: a reader
McLennan., G. Story of Sociology
Ritzer, G., Classical ‘Sociological Theory
Social Inequalities and Divisions
Geoff Payne (ed), 2000, Social Divisions Basingstoke: Palgrave
Castles, Stephen, and Miller, Mark J. 2009. The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Cohen, Robin, and Kennedy, Paul. 2007. Global Sociology. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Lash, Scott, and Lury, Celia. 2007. Global Culture Industries: The Mediation of Things. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Martell, Luke. 2010. The Sociology of Globalization. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Massey, Douglas S., Arango, Joaquin, and Hugo, Graeme. 2005. Worlds in Motion: Understanding International Migration at the End of the Millennium. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
An Introduction to the Sociology of Culture
Bennett, A. (2005) Culture and Everyday Life London: Sage Publications
Gray, A. and Mc Guigan, J. (eds) Studying Culture: an Introductory Reader London: Edward Arnold.
Hesmondhalgh, D. (2007) The Cultural Industries (second edition) London: Sage Publications.
Jenkins, H. (2006) Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide New York University Press
Strinati, D. (2004) An Introduction to Theories of Popular Culture (second edition) London: Routledge.
Research Methods
Devine, F., Heath, S. (1999) Sociological Research Methods in Context. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Gilbert, N. (ed.) (2001) Researching Social Life (2nd edition). London: Sage.
May, T. (2001) Social Research. Issues, Methods and Process (3rd Edition). Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Robson, C. (2002) Real World Research (2nd Edition). Oxford: Blackwell.
Ruane, J.M. (2005) Essentials of Research Methods. Oxford: Blackwell.
Seale C.F. (ed.) (2004) (2nd edition) Researching Society and Culture. London: Sage.
What’s the difference between studying sociology at ‘A’ Level and studying sociology at ‘degree’ level?
In terms of content – Sociology is a lot more diverse at degree level than at ‘A’ Level – Sociologists research very diverse topics and universities have more freedom to set the modules which they teach than at A level. Degree content will thus vary with the specialisms of the staff, and varies enormously from university to university – some universities will be more focused on politics and social policy, and others more on the media and the study of culture, for example.
Sociology lot more interdisciplinary at degree level– there is a lot more overlap between Sociology and other subjects such as Anthropology, Development Studies, Criminology, Psychology, and Social Policy. Most students studying Sociology actually combine it with something else.
You will need to do a lot more in-depth reading at degree level (this is the case in any social science, or humanities subject). You will typically need to read a minimum of one chapter from a book and one or two other sources which relate to this core reading. In total, this will mean at least 40 pages of reading per module per week, and you will probably be studying 4 modules at a time – so that means 160 pages per week – and you’ll need to add on more for the essays you’ll be doing.
You will need to know the knowledge in much more depth at degree level – you will be expected to read and summarise extracts of core-texts each week and be able to critically evaluate these texts in discussion and essays.
In terms of skills – you need show greater depth of critical awareness, analysis and evaluation, and be able to demonstrate all of these verbally and in writing, using evidence.
You need to more self-starting in terms of reading and writing essays – there is a lot less contact time at university.
Although your options in Sociology will vary enormously from uni to uni, pretty much all degree-courses will have compulsory modules in the following
Common Themes in most Sociology Degree Courses
Research Methods
Social Theory – Classical and Contemporary
You will also find options in the following areas in most university departments:
Globalisation
Identity
Gender
Dissertation option (which will be restricted by staff interests)
Two examples of Sociology departments to start you off
The University of Surrey – useful to know because it has reading lists attached to its courses (many universities don’t have these publically available)
The London School of Economics – useful to know even if you aren’t likely to get the grades due to its excellent public lecture programme and various blogs.
NB – There are another 99 universities which offer Sociology in the UK
According to the AQA, the following are the most important aspects of studying Sociology. What’s below is taken straight from the AQA web site
Integral elements
All the following must be an integral part of the study of each topic area:
Sociological theories, perspectives and methods
The design of the research used to obtain the data under consideration, including its strengths and limitations.
Attention must be given to drawing out the links between topic areas studied.
Core themes
Students must study the following two core themes:
Socialisation, culture and identity (Functionalism emphasises the importance of socialisation, postmodernism culture and action theory identity
Social differentiation, power and stratification (Marxism and Feminism emphasise the importance of these)
The themes should be understood and applied to particular substantive areas of Sociology. These themes are to be interpreted broadly as threads running through many areas of social life and should not therefore be regarded as discrete topics.
Contemporary UK society
The central focus of study in this specification should be on UK society today, with consideration given to comparative dimensions where relevant, including the siting of UK society within its globalised context.
Using the ‘Core Themes’ in A-level sociology
The most obvious exam-application is to use these as a basis for answering any 10 mark question – try to make sure one point is developed along the lines of socialisation, culture and identity, and another developed along the lines of differentiation, stratification and power. This way, you make sure you have two very different points!
