Selection Policies in Education

Selective Education policies are those which allow schools to select pupils on the basis of academic ability or other criteria. The classic example of a selective education policy was the 1944 Education Act which introduced the 11 plus test and pupils were selected on ability – those who passed were selected for grammar schools, those who failed went to secondary moderns.

The opposite of selective education is comprehensive education – where schools just take in any students, irrespective of criteria, however, factors such as ‘selection by mortgage’ means selection goes on by other means in a comprehensive system.

This post explores how the issue of selection applies to the following policies:

  • The 1944 Education Act/ Tripartite system
  • Comprehensives
  • The 1988 Education Act
  • Selection since 1988
  • Independent schools and selection.

It asks two questions:

  1. How do schools select pupils? (ability, aptitude, faith, catchment area, covert selection and social class)
  2. What are the effects of selection on equality of educational opportunity? (basically selection seems to benefit the middle classes)

Students might like to review policies on education before reading this post.

The 1944 Education Act

The 1944 Education act is a good example of a policy which selected students for different types of school by ability

The 1944 Education Act established three types of secondary school – Grammar, Technical and Secondary Modern. The three schools provided different types of education –

Grammar schools provided an academic education – all students would be entered for the new ‘O’ levels at age 15. 15 -20% of pupils attended grammar schools.

Technical schools provided a more vocational education – only about 5% of schools were technicals and they eventually faded out.

Secondary Moderns provided a more basic education, and pupils were not expected to sit exams. 80% of pupils attended these schools.

It was thought at the time that pupils had a certain level of ability which was fixed at age 11, and so a special Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.) test was designed to select which type of school different abilities of student would go into. Those who passed the 11+ went to grammar schools, those who failed went to secondary moderns.

Criticisms of the 1944 Education Act

– Pupil’s ‘intelligence level’ was not fixed at 11, ‘late developers’ missed out on the opportunity to get into a grammar school and sit exams.

– Those who attended secondary moderns were effectively labelled as failures.

– The system led to the reproduction of class inequality – typically middle class students passed the 11+ and went to grammar schools, got qualifications and higher paid jobs, and vice-versa for the working classes.

Comprehensive Schools

Introduced in 1965 Comprehensive Schools meant the he abolition of the 11+, and the end of grammar schools and secondary Moderns.

In 1965 the 11+ and the three types of school above were abolished, and so selection by ability at the age of 11 was effectively abolished too – grammar schools and secondary moderns were replaced by ‘comprehensive schools” – which means there is ‘one of type’ of school for all pupils, and these schools are not allowed to select by ability – they are forbidden from doing so by ‘The Schools Admissions Code’

Today, although many schools are called ‘Academies’ or ‘Free Schools’ or ‘Faith Schools’, they are all effectively comprehensives, and so do not select on the basis of ability.

Selection Policies since the 1988 Education Act

The 1988 Education Act introduced open enrolment – in which parents are allowed to apply for a place in any school in any area. A a result the best schools become over-subscribed, which means popular schools have to have policies in place to select students. The Schools Admissions Code states that schools cannot select on the basis of social class, but covert selection means that they often do just this!

Selection policies in oversubscribed schools

If a school is oversubscribed then pupils are selected on the basis of certain criteria, whicih much comply with the School Admission Code. The following are the most commonly used criteria for selecting students:

1. Selection by Catchment Area – the closer a student lives to the school, the more likely they are to get into the school.

2. Sibling Policies – those with brother’s and sisters who already attend the school are more likely to get a place

3. Selection by Faith – this only applies to faith schools – faith schools may select a proportion (but not all) of their pupils on the basis of religious belief and the commitment of their parents (how often they attend church for example).

4. Selection By Aptitude – where pupils are selected on the basis of their ‘aptitude’ in certain subjects. Most schools today are ‘Specialist schools’ – which means they ‘specialise’ in a certain subject and are allowed to select up to 10% of their pupils on the basis of their aptitude in a certain subject.

Criticisms of Admissions and Selection Policies since 1988

One major criticism of selection by catchment area is that this results in selection by mortgage – the house prices near to the best schools increase, and so over the years, only wealthier parents can afford to move into the catchment areas of the best schools.

Tough and Brooks (2007) use the term ‘covert selection’ to describe the process whereby schools try to discourage parents from lower socio-economic backgrounds from applying by doing such things as making school literature difficult to understand, having lengthy application forms, not publicising the school in poorer neighbourhoods, and requiring parents to buy expensive school uniforms. The end result of this is that middle class parents are more likely to apply for the best schools (because they have sufficient cultural capital to be able to complete the application process) and lower class parents are pushed out of the best (oversubscribed) schools.

Selection since 2010 – The Pupil Premium

One recent policy change which encourages schools to select disadvantaged pulses on the basis of low household income is the Pupil Premium – schools selecting these pupils get an extra £600 per year per student. NB This represents a recent modification to the school’s selection code, and is one of the few elements of selection policy which may do something to reduce inequality in education, rather than increase it!

Finally – Don’t forget Independent Schools

It’s worth mentioning that 7% of children attend independent, or fee paying schools – many of these schools will have admissions tests (like to old grammar schools) but of course selection is initially based on the ability of parents to pay – and the most expensive schools in the country cost in excess of £30K a year in fees.

Signposting

This post has primarily been written for students of A-level sociology and this topic is part of the compulsory education module which students will usually study in their first year.

Please click here to return to the homepage – ReviseSociology.com

Education and Ethnicity – Knowledge Check List

Knowledge checklist

Key concepts – You need to be able to define the following key concepts, explain how they are related to class and educational achievement, and asses their relative importance in explaining ethnic differences in educational achievement

  • Social class

  • Cultural deprivation

  • Material deprivation

  • Linguistic deprivation

  • The ethnocentric curriculum

  • Institutional racism

  • The A-C economy

  • Pupil subcultures

  • Labeling

  • The self fulfilling prophecy

Key research studies

  • Steve Strand – the Longitudinal study

  • Crozier – some Asian parents keep their distance

  • David Gilborn – teacher labelling

  • Cecile Wright – teacher labelling

  • Mac An Ghail – pupil subcultures

  • Tony Sewell – pupil subcultures

  • Gilborn and Youdell – the A-C economy

Sample short answer questions

  • Suggest three home based cultural factors which may account for why Chinese and Indian children outperform other ethnic groups (6)

  • Suggest three ways in which the school curriculum may be said to be ethnocentric (6)

  • Suggest two criticisms of labeling theory (4)

Sample essay questions

  • Briefly examine the relationship between cultural factors and ethnic differences in educational achievement (12)

  • Using material from item A and elsewhere, assess the claim that ‘ethnic difference in educational achievement are primarily the result of in-school factors’ (20)

Gender and Education – Knowledge Check List

Main Sub Topics
·         Gender and Differential Educational Achievement.

·         Why are girls outperforming boys?

·         Why are boys ‘underachieving’ compared to girls?

·         Gender and Subject Choice

·         Why do girls and boys choose different subjects?

·         The extent to which processes within school reinforce traditional masculine and feminine ‘gender identities’

Selected Concepts you Need to Know  

  • Feminism
  • The gender gap
  • Service sector
  • Primary socialisation
  • Crisis of masculinity
  • Feminisation of education
  • Gendered subject domains
  • Male gaze
  • Gender stereotyping
  • Ladette culture
  • Anti-school subculture
  • Pro school subculture
  • Verbal abuse
  • Gender identity

Selected Short Answer Questions

  • Define the term ‘crisis of masculinity’ (2)
  • Using one example explain how traditional gender-identities might be reinforced within education (2)
  • Outline three in-school factors which might influence the subjects which girls and boys choose (6)
  • Outline and briefly explain how two external factors have resulted in girls outperforming boys’ in education (10)
Possible (QUITE NASTY) Essay Questions
Assess the argument that the feminisation of education is main reason for male underachievement in education (20)

Assess the view that the gender gap in education has been over exaggerated (20)

 

Social Class and Educational Achievement – Knowledge Check List

Main Sub-Topics

  • Intro – How achievement varies by social class background
  • Material deprivation and educational achievement.
  • Cultural deprivation theory and educational achievement
  • Cultural capital theory and educational achievement
  • In school processes and how these effect achievement
  • How education policies affect educational achievement by social class

Selected Key Concepts

  • Social Class
  • Educational Attainment
  • Cultural Deprivation
  • Immediate Gratification
  • Deferred Gratification
  • Elaborated Speech Code
  • Restricted Speech Code
  • Fatalistic
  • NEETs
  • Material Deprivation
  • Social Capital
  • Material Capital
  • The Ideal Pupil
  • Counter School Culture
  • Streaming
  • Compensatory Education

Selected Short Answer Questions

  • Define what is meant by the term ‘material deprivation’ (2)
  • Using one example explain how cultural deprivation effects educational achievement (2)
  • Outline three ways in which material deprivation can affect educational achievement (6)
  • Outline and briefly explain two ways in which cultural capital can give an advantage to some pupils in education (10)

Selected Essay Questions

  • Assess the argument that cultural factors are more important that material factors when explaining social class and achievement. (20)
  • Assess the view that home factors are more important than in-school factors when explaining differential achievement by social class (20)

Education Policies – Knowledge Check-List

The Main ‘Waves’ of Education Policies

  • 1944 – The Tripartite System
  • 1965 – Comprehensivisation
  • 1988 – The 1988 Education Reform Act
  • 1997 – New Labour’s Education Policies
  • 2010 – The Coalition and the New New Right’s Education Policies

Possible Issues Questions Might Focus On 

  • To what extent have policies raised standards in education?
  • To what extent have policies improved equality of opportunity?
  • Perspectives on selection as an educational policy
  • Perspectives on the increased privatisation of education
  • How is globalisation affecting educational and educational policy?
Some Concepts and specific policies you need know about
In the context of education, briefly explain what is meant by….

·         The Tripartite system

·         Comprehensivisation

·         Marketisation

·         Parentocracy

·         The New Right

·         League Tables

·         The National Curriculum

·         Selection by mortgage

·         Teaching to the test

·         Polarisation

·         Sink schools

 ·         The school-parent alliance

·         Disconnected choosers and skilled choosers

·         Cultural and social capital

·         Academies

·         Free Schools

·         Sure Start

·         Education Maintenance Allowance

·         Vocationalism

·         Modern Apprenticeships

·         Compensatory education

·         Faith schools

·         Free schools

Possible Outline and Essay Questions

  • Outline two ways in which educational policies since 1988 have aimed to create a market in education (10)
  • Outline two consequences of the increased privatisation of education (10)
  • Assess the view that educational policies since 1988 have failed to improve equality of

Perspectives on the Role of Education – Knowledge Check- List

What you need to know for the perspectives on education topic for the AQA’s A-level sociology

This is normally the first topic taught as part of the sociology of education module within A-level sociology.

Perspectives on the role of education covers mainly bullet point one on the AQA A-level sociology specification on the role of education as it relates to society and the economy.

Perspectives on education are assessed as part of the AQA’s SCLY1 Paper one: Education and Theory and Methods paper – one of three papers outlined on my revision exam and advice page.

Perspectives on Education: Main Sub Topics

  • The Functionalist Perspective
  • The Marxist Perspective
  • The Neoliberal and New Right Perspective
  • The Post-Modernist Perspective
  • The Impact of Globalisation on Education
  • The relationship between education, the economy and work

Key concepts 

You need to be able to define the following key concepts, explain how they are related to class and educational achievement, and asses their relative importance in explaining ethnic differences in educational achievement

  • Ideological state apparatus
  • Repressive state apparatus
  • Ideological tool
  • Dominant ideology
  • Correspondence theory
  • The hidden/informal curriculum
  • Marketisation
  • Parentocracy
  • Voucher System
  • Value consensus
  • Role allocation
  • Particularistic
  • Universalistic
  • Specialist skills
  • Social solidarity
  • Meritocracy
  • National identity

For definitions of these key concepts please see my education key concepts page.

Selected Short Answer Questions

There are three types of question – a four and a six mark which will ask you to outline two things and a 10 mark ‘analyse using the item’ question.

  • Outline two ways in which education might transmit the dominant ideology according to Marxists (4 marks)
  • Outline two ways in which education might benefit males according to feminists (4 marks)
  • Outline three positive functions of education according to functionalists (6 marks)
  • Outline two similarities between the Functionalist and New Right perspectives on education (4 marks)
  • (Applying material from item B) analyse two ways in which education might contribute to the maintenance of society as a whole (10 marks)
  • (Applying material from item B and elsewhere analyse two ways in which the education system has changed in response to globalisation (10 marks)
  • Applying material from Item A, analyse two effects of increased parental choice on pupils’ experience of education (10 marks).

Possible 30 Mark Essay Questions on Education

As with the 10 mark questions you will get an item for the essay questions which you must refer to in your answer for maximum possible marks!

(Using material from the item and elsewhere) Evaluate sociological explanations of the role of education in transmitting ideas and values (30)

(Using material from the item and elsewhere) Evaluate the Marxist Perspective on the Role of Education in Society (30)

Assess the point of view that education creates inequality in society. (20)

Signposting and other relevant posts:

For links to further posts on perspectives on education please see my sociology of education page.

For advice on how to answer short answer questions and the essay questions above you might like to see my page on revision and exam advice, the paper 1 section!

Please click here to return to the homepage – ReviseSociology.com

Methods in Context Mark Scheme

My pared down mark scheme for the methods in context question in the previous post, which is adapted from the AQA’s own mark scheme, just put into easier language:

Applying material from Item B and your knowledge of research methods, evaluate the strengths and limitations of using covert participant observation to investigate pupils with behavioural difficulties (20)

Marks Level Descriptors
17-20

 

If work your guts off you could get here!

 

 Knowledge of the strengths and limitations of covert participant observation will be accurate and conceptually detailed.

Application will be very focussed on the specific topic. Students will consider at least two of the following in relation to the specific issue (pupils with behavioural difficulties)

1.    Who you might be researching (e.g. pupils, peer groups, parents, teachers, support staff).

2.    Where you might be doing the research (e.g. classrooms, staffrooms, pupils’ homes).

3.    The sensitivity of researching pupils with behavioural difficulties (e.g. vulnerability, stigmatisation, parental consent, school reputation).

Evaluation of the usefulness of covert participant observation will be explicit and relevant. Analysis will show clear explanation and may draw appropriate conclusions.

Students will typically apply 4/5 of the following strengths and limitations of covert Participant Observation to the above issue:

1.    Practical issues in the research process: Access (getting in, staying in, getting out), data recording, time/ cost

2.    Ethical issues – e.g. sensitivity, informed consent

3.    Issues of validity: qualitative data/ verstehen/insight, flexibility

4.    Interpretation and analysis problems

5.    Small sample size/ unrepresentativeness

 

Marks Level Descriptors
13-16

You should aim to be here!

 

 1.    Knowledge of the strengths and limitations of covert participant observation will be accurate, broad and deep, but incomplete.

2.    Application of knowledge to the topic (students with behavioural difficulties) will be more generalised or more restricted way, for example:

 

•      applying the method to the study of education in general, not to the specifics of studying pupils with behavioural difficulties, or

 

•      specific but undeveloped application to pupils with behavioural difficulties, or

 

•      a focus on the research characteristics of pupils with behavioural difficulties, or groups/contexts etc. involved in it.

 

3.    Evaluation and analysis are likely to be explicit but limited

 
9-12

It’s reasonable but not desirable to be here

 1.    Knowledge of the strengths and/or limitations of covert participant observation will be accurate but with limited breadth and depth

 

2.    Application of the method will be limited to education in general, rather than the specific topic

 

3.    Evaluation and Analysis will be limited, with answers tending towards the descriptive.

 
5-8

No one should be here!

 1.    Knowledge of covert participant observation will be limited and undeveloped – e.g. two to three insubstantial points about some features of covert participant observation.

 

2.    Application to the topic will be very limited and at a tangent to the demands of the question, e.g. perhaps drifting into an unfocused comparison of different methods.

 

3.    Minimal/no evaluation.

 
1-4

You defo shouldn’t be here!

 Answers in this band will show very limited knowledge, eg one to two very insubstantial points about methods in general. Very little/no understanding of the question and of the presented material.

Significant errors, omissions, and/or incoherence in application of material.

Some material ineffectually recycled from the Item, or some knowledge applied solely to the substantive issue of pupils with behavioural difficulties, with very little or no reference to covert participant observation.

 

 

 

 

Methods in Context Essay Template

A suggested template for the Methods in Context Question on one of the AQA’s 7191 (1)education and methods in context sample exam papers – the template should work for most Method in Context questions, but it won’t work for all of them (it’ll fit less well for secondary data MIC questions)

Question: 06 Read Item B below and answer the question that follows

Item B

Investigating pupils with behavioural difficulties

Some pupils experience behavioural difficulties and problems interacting with others. This can create a major obstacle to learning, for both themselves and their classmates. In some cases, they are taught in specialist schools or in pupil referral units separate from mainstream education. Often, their behavioural difficulties result from problems outside school and many pupils come from materially deprived and chaotic home backgrounds.

Some sociologists may study pupils with behavioural difficulties using covert participant observation. This method enables the researcher to witness directly the pupils’ behaviour and its context. It may also allow the researcher to build a relationship of trust with pupils and parents. However, the researcher may find it difficult to fit in and he or she may need to adopt a specialised role such as teacher or support worker.

Evaluate the strengths and limitations of using covert participant observation to investigate pupils with behavioural difficulties (20)

Suggested Essay Plan

Cover Four things – Sampling/ Representativeness, Access, Validity, Ethics – In relation to the specific topic you are will be researching….

Discuss getting a sample/ Representativeness How might you gain a representative sample of the group you are studying? Are there any reasons why it might be difficult to get a representative sample?

Will the research method in the question make achieving a representative sample easier or more difficult?

What could you do to ensure representativeness?

 

 

 
Discuss gaining access to respondents Once you’ve decided on your sample, why might gaining access to respondents be a problem? (think of who you will be researching, and where you will be researching)

 

 

 

Will the choice of method make gaining access easier or more difficult?

 

 

 

 

What would you have to do to make sure you can gain access to this particular group?

 

 

 

 
Discuss validity/ empathy/ trust/ Insight Think of who you will be researching – are there any specific reasons why they may not wish to disclose information, or be unable to be disclose information?

 

 

 

Will the research method in the question make gaining trust easier or more difficult?

 

 

 

What could you do to make sure you get valid data from the people you will be researching?

 

 

 
Discuss Ethics Think of the specific topic you are researching in relation to who you will be researching – are there any specific ethical problems with researching these people?

 

 

Given these ethical problems, is the research method appropriate?

 

 

How can you make sure research is ethical?

 

 
Conclusion Based on all of the above is this a practical, theoretically sound and ethical method for this topic

 

NB – For the Topic you could discuss any of the following:

Who you might be researching

  • Pupils
  • Teachers
  • Parents
  • Support Staff

Where you might be researching pupils with behavioural difficulties

  • Classrooms
  • Staffrooms
  • Parents’ homes

 Specific characteristics of the subjects under investigation

  • Vulnerability
  • Stigmatisation
  • Parental consent

For the Method – You should consider all of TPEN: See here for the factors you should consider

Also relevant:

Participant Observation

Using Participant Observation to Research Education

 

Family Diversity – Sub Topics, Key Concepts and Short Answer Questions

An overview of topic 3: the family household and diversity topic within AS Sociology (my own version of how I break up this massive topic!)

Since the 1960s, post-modern society has been characterised by an increasing amount of family diversity, and this topic looks at how families and households have become more diverse, why they have become more diverse, and perspectives on increasing family diversity.

For this part of the course you need to be able to explain the reasons for the increase in the family and household types listed above and be able to analyse the social significance of these changes from different sociological perspectives. You also need to be able to examine and assess the extent to which families, households and relationships vary according to social class, ethnicity and sexuality.

Sub Topics

3.1 – The underlying causes of the long term increase In Reconstituted families, Single parent families, Multi-generational households, Single person households and ‘Kidult’ households.

3.2 Perspectives on the social significance of the increase of all of the above.

3.3 – The extent to which family life varies by ethnicity, social class and sexuality.

3.4 Evaluating the extent to which the nuclear family is in decline.

Key concepts you should be able to apply

  • Reconstituted Families
  • Individualisation
  • The cereal-packet family
  • Blended Family
  • Beanpole Family
  • Multi-generational Household
  • Forced Marriage
  • Polygamy
  • The Rappaport’s five types of diversity
  • there are many other concepts you can apply from the perspectives topic

Possible exam style short answer questions

  • Using one example explain one challenge reconstituted families might face which traditional nuclear families might not (4)
  • Outline three reasons for the increase single parent households (6)
  • Using one example explain one stereotype that is often associated with single parent households (4)
  • Outline three reasons why single parent households are twice as likely to be in poverty compared to nuclear family households (6)
  • Outline three reasons for the increase in single person households (6)
  • Outline three reasons for increase in multi-generational households (6)
  • Using one example explain one way in which family life may vary by ethnicity (4)
  • Outline and briefly explain two ways in which family life might vary by social class background (10)
  • Using one example explain why some Sociologists claim that the decline of the nuclear family has been exaggerated (4)

Evaluate Sociological Perspectives on Prison as a Form of Punishment (Essay Plan)

1. Functionalists would point to the positive functions prison might perform in society –Prison could act as a deterrent – thus reinforcing social regulation; and it should also work to maintain equilibrium and balance in our society – making up for the failings of other institutions such as the family and the education system – restoring order through incapacitating those who break the law.

Ultimately however, one might criticize the effectiveness of prison – given that there is a 60% reoffending rate it isn’t really effective in restoring equilibrium in the first place – what prison does most of the time is resocialise people into criminal norms, in the extreme people become institutionalized and unable to reintegrate into society once released.

2. Marxists argue that by relying on prison, we ignore the failings of the system that lead to the conditions of inequality and poverty which lead to crime. Furthermore, the imprisonment of selected members of the lower classes neutralises opposition to the system; the imprisonment of many members of the underclass also sweeps out of sight the ‘worst jetsam of Capitalist society’ such that we cannot see it; and we may also add a fourth benefit, that all of the police, court and media focus on working class street crime means that our attention is diverted away from the immorality and greed of the elite classes.

Supporting evidence for the Marxist view comes from the fact that there are higher rates of imprisonment in more unequal countries.

Left realists criticise Marxists for absolving criminals from blame – people in jail mostly deserve to be there and their victims are most likely to be working class themselves.
3. Michel Foucault sees the growth of prison as a means of punishment as reflecting the move from sovereign power to disciplinary power – in traditional societies power was exercised on people’s physical bodies – punishment was harsh – it was a spectacle – today power is exercised through surveillance – the state no longer beats criminals – it just subjects them to increased surveillance – the theory is that people change their behavior because they know they are being monitored constantly. Prison seams more humane than physical punishment but in reality it is much more invasive as a means of social control.
One criticism of Foucault is that he fails to recognize that many prisoners do not change their behavior even though they are being watched!

4. Since the 1980s there has been a significant increase in the use of imprisonment in the United Kingdom – numbers have roughly doubled since 1990 with the total prison population now standing at about 84000 and we have one of the highest rates of imprisonment in the western world.

This increase has gone hand in hand with the implementation of Right Realist policies that emphasize rational choice theory as the cause of crime and zero tolerance as the solution to crime. The state claims that tougher penalties are one of the major causes of declining crime rates.

5. However David Garland points out that the crime rate has fallen in many countries over the last two decades, even in those that do not imprison as many people as the UK.

David Garland’s view the increasing use of imprisonment in the United States is that we now live in a era of mass incarceration – the United States locks up a massive proportion of the unemployed (Garland estimates as many as one third of all unemployed people are actually in jail in the USA) – and many of these become locked in a cycle of ‘transcarceration’ – where they shift between different agencies of state control and never fully reintegrate into society once having been in jail.

Garland actually argues that the reason the US and the UK lock up so many people is because of neo-liberalism – neo-liberal policies have made these societies more unequal and more individualistic – life has become harsher – and thus it is easier for the state to justify harsher penalties.

6. Critics of the ‘overuse of prison’ argue that we should employ alternatives – by using curfews, community service and treatment orders – because these have a lower reoffending rate – mainly because they do not remove an offender from society.

It is also worth noting that the characteristics of the prison population are very different to the characteristics of the population as a whole. People who are over-represented include ethnic minority groups, men, the underclass and the young. It is also worth noting that many female prisoners are likely to have suffered physical and emotional abuse and many claim they are in jail because of pressure to do criminal acts coming from their male partners.

7. To conclude, given the massive reoffending rate – and thus failure of prison to rehabilitate offenders – critical perspectives such as Garland’s remind us not to fall into the simplistic analysis of Functionalism and Right Realism who see prison as an effective means of social control.

The critical approaches of Marxism, Foucault and Garland are probably the most useful here as these remind us that it is the rise of neo-liberal hegemony since the 1970s and right realism since the 1990s that have lead to an increasing crime rate, and then to the increases in prison populations experienced in neo-liberal countries such as the UK and the USA.

Related Posts

The Spirit Level – how inequality effects the crime rate