Social capital theory examines how the relationships, networks, and shared values between individuals contribute to the cohesion and functioning of society. Popularised by US sociologist Robert Putnam, the theory distinguishes between bonds (close ties), bridges (connections beyond one’s immediate group), and linkages (links across social hierarchies).
Putnam’s influential research, including his book Bowling Alone, highlights how changes in modern life have weakened community connections and reduced civic engagement. This page explores the foundations of social capital theory, Putnam’s contributions, and the relevance of his ideas to understanding community life in the 21st century.
Social Capital Theory Explained: Bonds, Bridges, and Linkages
A recurrent theme animating early social thinkers was the fear that modern society was eroding traditional forms of community life, social cohesion, and a shared sense of solidarity. As valid as those concerns about change were, the 19th century was also a great era of voluntarism, during which people cooperated and established many of the institutions – such as schools and charities – which we know today.
However, by the late 20th century, the state had taken on many of these responsibilities and the civic connections that once unified people had gone into decline. The social glue that binds together individuals and wider society was referred to as “social capital” by the US sociologist Robert Putnam, and is fostered through voluntary associations and civic networks. Americans today are wealthier than in the 1960s, says Putnam, but at the cost of a shared sense of moral obligation and community.
Three different types of link make up this social capital: bonds, bridges, and linkages. Bonds are forged from a sense of common identity, including family, friends, and ethnic communities. Bridges extend beyond shared identity to include colleagues, associates, and acquaintances. Linkages connect individuals or groups further up or down the social hierarchy. In the type of social capital binding people are important. For example, bonds with friends and family can help to secure a job, or provide a source of comfort at times of emotional need. But bonds can be restricting, too: in immigrant communities, bonding with fellow immigrants can hinder the formation of social bridges and linkages, which makes integration into wider society more difficult.
Robert Putnam’s Contribution to Civic Engagement and Community Life
Putnam’s study Bowling Alone applies the concept of social capital to US society. He shows that the demise of traditional suburban neighbourhoods and the increasing solitude that commuters and workers face daily – listening to iPods, or sitting in front of computer screens – means that people are just less likely to engage with voluntary and community-based initiatives, but also to spend less time socializing with friends, neighbours, and family.
Putnam uses ten-pin bowling to illustrate his point: the number of Americans taking up the sport has increased, but the proportion who join a team is in decline. People are literally “bowling alone” because the traditional community values of trust and reciprocity have been eroded, which impacts negatively upon voluntary associations and civically oriented organizations, from parent/teacher associations (PTAs) to local council committees. Since Putnam set up the Saguaro Seminar initiative in 1995 to look into aspects of civic engagement, his concept of social capital has become vastly influential, and has been applied to a wide range of phenomena spanning neighbourhood quality of life and crime rates to voting behaviour and church attendance.
Bowling Alone: America’s Declining Social Capital
In 1995 his article “Bowling Alone: America’s Declining Social Capital” began a debate about civic engagement and Putnam was invited to meet with then US President Bill Clinton. Since then, with the article having become a book in 2000, his influence has grown. In 2013 President Barack Obama awarded him the National Humanities Medal for his contribution to understanding and trying to ameliorate community life in the USA.
Key Dates
- 1916 The term social capital is coined by US social reformer L J Hanifan, and refers to intangible things that count in daily life, such as “good will, fellowship, sympathy, and social intercourse”.
- 2000 Finnish sociologist Martti Siisiainen critically examines Pierre Bourdieu and Robert D Putnam’s respective concepts of social capital.
- 2000 The Saguaro Seminar at Harvard University produces Better Together, a report led by Putnam and a team of scholars aimed at addressing the “critically low levels” of social capital in the USA.
- 2013 Dutch social thinker Marlene Vock and others use the concept of social capital in Understanding Willingness to Pay for Social Network Sites.
Robert Putnam: Key works
- 2000 Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community
- 2002 Democracies in Flux
- 2003 Better Together (with Lewis M Feldstein)
Signposting
Social capital theory is a key concept within sociology, explaining how networks of trust, reciprocity, and shared values strengthen communities and shape social life. Explore my social theories page to learn how Robert Putnam’s work fits in to sociology more generally!