In sociology, the motherhood penalty is well documented: women’s earnings often decline after having children, while men’s earnings remain relatively stable or even rise. However, new research by academics at Warwick, Essex, and Exeter universities suggests that not every child is equally “costly” for mothers. Their large study of 40,000 UK households found that mothers seem to pay more when they have daughters compared to sons.
The Hidden Gender Cost of Parenthood
The study tracked mothers’ lives over the first five years after childbirth. Mothers of sons saw their earnings fall by 3.3% on average, while mothers of daughters lost 2.6%. At the same time, employment rates dropped more sharply among mothers of girls. While the percentage differences may look small, across years of lost income and reduced career opportunities, the costs compound significantly.
This research adds depth to discussions about gender inequalities in the family, showing that the effects of parenthood vary depending on the child’s gender.
The Unequal Burden of Housework
The study also revealed differences in domestic labour. Mothers of daughters spent an average of 72 minutes more on housework per week compared to fathers. By contrast, the difference was smaller (47 minutes) when the child was a boy.
This reflects long-standing sociological debates about the domestic division of labour, famously explored by Ann Oakley and others. It suggests that traditional gender roles remain deeply embedded, with mothers feeling greater pressure to model “appropriate” femininity when raising daughters. Girls also grow up observing these inequalities, which may normalise women taking on a disproportionate share of housework.
For a wider context, see my post on feminist perspectives on the family, which argues that domestic life continues to reproduce gender inequality across generations.
What This Means for Gender Equality
The findings remind us that the motherhood penalty is not uniform. It interacts with cultural expectations around gender, influencing both the paid economy and the unpaid work of the home. When mothers of daughters face a steeper decline in employment and higher housework demands, it shows how strongly patriarchal norms shape family life.
For policymakers, the research highlights the need to promote shared parental leave and workplace policies that challenge gendered expectations. For sociologists, it raises further questions about how inequality is reproduced not just between men and women, but also through the gendered experiences of children.
If you are revising this area, it’s worth connecting this research to debates around the triple shift (paid work, housework, and emotional labour) and to evidence on the continued existence of patriarchal family structures.
Relevance to A Level Sociology
This study is a striking reminder that even the gender of a child can influence how inequality plays out within families. Mothers pay a price for motherhood in general, but those with daughters appear to face a heavier burden in terms of lost earnings and extra unpaid work.
For sociology students, this is a clear example of how gender roles, domestic labour, and cultural expectations intersect to reinforce inequality. It also shows why sociologists must look beyond averages to understand the nuanced ways in which patriarchy shapes everyday family life.
🏡 For a broader overview of key theories, policies, and trends, explore my main page on the A level sociology of the family , where you’ll find links to revision notes covering everything from changing family structures to childhood and domestic labour.
Sources:
- Institute for Fiscal Studies (2018). The Motherhood Penalty.
- The Guardian (2023). Mothers with daughters do more housework than those with sons.