ReviseSociology

Tag: social action theory

  • Social Action Theory: Revision Notes for A-Level Sociology

    The Advance Information for the 2022 Sociology A-levels specifies that students WILL be assessed on the area of consensus, conflict, structural and/ or action theories.

    The easiest way to revise these topics at A2 level is to briefly cover the key ideas of each theory AND ALSO revise how each of these theories applies to the topic areas you have studied – usually families, education, crime and deviance and research methods, and then to evaluate.

    This post is a summary revision post of the key ideas of social action theory. Before reviewing it you might like to look at these posts:

    Social Action Theory Main Ideas

    • We need Verstehen to understand human action, because the same actions can mean different things to different people. Statistical methods and observation alone are not enough to understand human action (Weber)
    • We need to understand action in terms of shared meanings within a group (Mead) and how the members of that group see themselves (their identity) and how the individuals and the group understand society.
    • We need to understand whether an individual is just putting on an act (manipulating props and just managing an impression)
    • We need to understand whether a person has been labelled by agents of social control, whether they have been stigmatised by society.

    Research Methods Implications

    • Getting to people’s own motives for action requires in-depth qualitative methods
    • In order to understand shared meanings we need at the very least to use unstructured interviews.
    • In order to assess whether the extent to which people are ‘acting out’ identities we need to use Participant Observation, which in many cases will not be possible.

    How Social Action Theorists understand family life

    The Personal Life Perspective argues that we need to start by abandoning standard definitions of the family and focus instead on what ‘family’ means to them – when we do this, we find that many people see a whole load of unusual relationships as being more significant to their intimate lives (pets and dead relatives for example) than their actual ‘family members’. This critics the Functionalist idea that families are necessary parts of society – families are much more fluid than ever before, and friends can perform many of the functions as formal family members.

    How they understand achievement in education

    • (Following Mead) – In depth research of anti-school subcultures has revealed a wide variety of meanings and identities which different students bring to the school…which conflict with the school’s value system. For example, Paul Willis’ study found that the lads saw school work as irrelevant to their future lives, while Tony Sewel argues that being a ‘swot’ may compromise young black boys’ ideas about masculinity. We thus cannot truly understand underachievement without understanding these boys’ identities and why school doesn’t fit in with their identities.
    • Labelling theory however explains underachievement in terms of middle class white teachers labelling students not like them as problem students, which creates a self-fulfilling prophecy.
    • Goffman’s dramaturgical theory is useful – ‘good’ students may just be better at putting on an act – better at ‘impression manageme

    How Social Action Theorists understand Crime and Deviance

    • Following Mead – Research on gangs has shown that being in a gang doesn’t necessarily mean ‘being bad” – gang membership is typically casual and fluid, it does not mean that much at all to many members, and is about protection for many, rather than criminality. There are several different types of gang, several different meanings. This criticise structural subcultural theories of deviance.
    • Following Becker’s labelling theory – The Police act in terms of stereotypes when it comes to stop and search, as do the courts, this goes some way to explaining why there are more EM’s in jail.
    • Following Goffman’s dramaturgical theory – elites may be just as criminal as non-elites, they are just better at acting in ways which mean they avoid attention from the police.

    Key Studies

    • The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
    • The ‘action’ bit of Paul Willis’ study of the lads.
    • John Heale’s One blood – gangs as self-defence, gangs as fluid;
    • Gok Wan – People dressing up
    • Facebook;
    • Howard Becker – The Ideal Pupil
    • RJ SFP
    • David Gilborn – Teachers labelling African Caribbean boys

    Social Action Theory: Evaluations

    • It doesn’t pay sufficient attention to how social structures constrain action – for example, material deprivation can have a real, objective impact on your ability to well at school, thus failure is not just all about labelling.
    • It tends to ignore power-distribution in society – it can’t explain patterns in class, gender, ethnicity.
    • If people are so active, then why do so many people choose to be so normal?
    • Labelling theory can also be criticised for being deterministic
    • The small-scale methods associated with this theory can equally be criticised for lacking reliability and representativeness

  • Max Weber: The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

    Max Weber: The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

    Weber argued the values of the protestant religion led to the emergence of capitalism in Northern Europe in the 1600s.

    Weber observed that Capitalism first took off in Holland and England, in the mid 17th century. He asked himself the question: ‘why did Capitalism develop in these two countries first?’

    the protestant ethic and the spirit of captialism

    Protestant Individualism and the Emergence of Capitalism 

    Weber argued that the particular varieties of protestantism present in England and Holland in the 1600s were essential to the emergence of capitalism in those two countries. 

    The values of Protestantism encouraged ways of acting which (unintentionally) resulted in capitalism emerging, over a period of many decades, even centuries.

    Weber observed that most other countries in Europe at that time were Catholic. He theorised the different value systems of the two religions had different effects.  

    Protestantism encouraged people to ‘find God for themselves’. Protestantism taught that silent reflection, introspection and prayer were the best ways to find God. This (unintentionally, and over many years) encouraged Protestants to adopt a more ‘individualistic’ attitude to their religion by seeking their own interpretations of Christianity.

    In contrast, Catholicism was a religion which encouraged more conservative values and thus resisted social changes. The Catholic Church had a top-down structure: from God to the Pope to the Senior Bishops and then down to the people. Ultimate power to interpret Catholic doctrine rested with the Pope and his closest advisers. The authorities expected practising Catholics to abide by such interpretations and not to interpret religious scripture for themselves. 

    Similarly, part of being a good Catholic meant attending mass, which was administered by a member of the Catholic establishment. This reinforced the idea that the church was in control of religious matters. 

    Weber argued that the individualistic ethos of Protestantism laid the foundations for a greater sense of individual freedom. It was acceptable to challenge ‘top down’ interpretations of Christian doctrine, as laid down by the clergy. Societies which have more individual freedom are more open to social changes. Hence why capitalism emerged first in the two Protestant countries England and Holland in the 1600s. 

    book cover in german: protestant ethic and spirit of capitalism
    The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism Book cover

    The Protestant Ethic: necessary but not sufficient!

    Weber recognised that protestantism alone did not explain why capitalism emerged in Holland and England first. He noted that Switzerland, Scotland and Hungary were also protestant countries. However these did not have other factors present which were conducive to social change. 

    Other factors existing in England and Holland were also important for capitalism to emerge, such as governments which supported protestantism and the availability of capital to invest. But protestantism was also an essential driver in the emergence of capitalism.  

    Weber also argued that Buddhism and Taoism in India and China prevented capitalism from emerging first there. India and China also had technological knowledge and labour for hire in the 1600s. However, Buddhist and Taoist religions encourage inner reflection rather than ‘a work ethic’.  Hence India and China  suitable belief systems for capitalism to emerge. 

    The Protestant Ethic

    Weber argued that a particular denomination of Protestantism known as Calvinism played a key role in ushering in the social change of Capitalism.

    Calvinism originated in the beliefs of John Calvin who preached the doctrine of predestination: God had already decided who was going to heaven (‘the elect’) before they were born. Similarly, God had also already decided who the damned were. Whether or not you were going to hell had already been decided before your birth.

    This fatalistic situation raised the question of how you would know who was saved and who was damned. Fortunately, Calvinism also taught that there was a way of figuring this out. There were indicators which could tell you who was ‘elect’, and who was damned.

    Simply put, the harder you worked, and the less time you spent idling and/ or engaged in unproductive, frivolous activities, then the more likely it was that you were one of those pre-chosen for a life in heaven. This is because, according to Calvinist doctrine, God valued hard-work and a ‘pure-life’ non-materialistic life.

    According to Weber this led to a situation in which Calvinist communities encouraged work for the glory of God, and discouraged laziness and frivolity. Believers were motivated to stick to these ethical codes, given that hell was the punishment if you didn’t.

    John Calvin: all work and no play!

    Calvinism: all work and no play! 

    A strong value within Calvinism was asceticism and leading an ascetic lifestyle. Asceticism means leading an austere lifestyle of rigorous self-discipline and abstaining from life’s pleasures. 

    Hard work was a calling and Calvinists pursued it with single mindedness and with vigour. 

    John Wesley, leader of the Methodist revival just before the industrial revolution wrote towards the end of the 18th century:

    ‘For religion must necessarily produce industry and frugality, and these cannot but produce riches. We must exhort all Christians to gain what they can and to save all they can; that is, in effect to grow rich’. (Quoted in Weber, 1954.)

    Calvinists disliked time-wasting, idle gossip and more sleep than was necessary. They frowned on impulsive fun and enjoyment such as pubs and gaming houses. Sport and recreation were only justified for improving fitness, not for fun. Sex was only for procreation. 

    Since asceticism was also a belief, people couldn’t spend their riches on enjoying themselves. Rather, they should invest profits back in their businesses to enhance capacity to meet their calling. 

    Over the decades, the ‘work-ethic’ of protestantism encouraged individuals and whole communities to set up businesses, and re-invest any money they earned to grow these businesses. 

    The Spirit of Capitalism 

    The attitude towards wealth in protestantism mirrored the attitude to wealth creation in capitalism. 

    Underlying the practice of capitalism was what Weber called the ‘Spirit of Capitalism’. 

    Weber saw this spirit in the works of Benjamin Franklin. He wrote works entitled ‘Necessary Hints to Those that Would be Rich’ (1736) and ‘Advice to a Young Tradesman’ (1748). In the later he wrote:

    ‘Remember that time is money. Time wasting, idleness and diversion lose money…. A reputation for prudence and honesty will bring credit… Business people should behave with industry and frugality and punctuality and justice in their dealings.’

    The Spirit of capitalism was more than about making money, it was also a way of life and a set of ethics. Making money became both a religious ethic and a business ethic. 

    Capitalist enterprises are organised on rational bureaucratic lines. Capitalists conduct Business transactions in a systematic and rational manner and they monitor costs and profits closely. This single minded, rational pursuit of profits is like a sense of calling in protestantism. 

    The protestant idea of a regimented and disciplined life and the idea that people had a set place in life further encouraged standardised production and justified the division of labour. 

    Weber argued that over the following centuries, the norm of working hard and investing in your business became entrenched in European societies. These norms encouraged entrepreneurialism and a rational approach to mass production which fuelled capitalism. 

    Eventually the old protestant religious ideas withered away and we were left with mainly secular, capitalist societies. 

    Evaluations of the Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

    Weber’s theory of social change recognises that we need to take account of individual motivations for action in order to understand massive social structural changes.

    Kautsky developed a Marxist critique of Weber. He argued that early capitalism preceded Calvinism. He sees Calvinism as developing in countries and cities where commerce and early industrialisation were already established. Then Calvinism came along to justify their already existing capitalist practices. 

    Critics have pointed out that the emergence of Capitalism doesn’t actually correlate that well with Protestantism. There are many historical examples of Capitalist systems having emerged in non-Protestant countries. An example of this is Italian Mercantilism a couple of centuries earlier.

    There are also some Calvinist countries where capitalism developed much later on. For example Switzerland and Scotland. 

    However, defenders of Weber dismiss the above criticisms. They point out that if we drill down into the examples of where capitalism didn’t emerge in some calvinist countries, those countries didn’t have other necessary factors. For example in Scotland, they lacked capital investment and government policies were not favourable. 

    Max Weber’s Protestant Ethic: how is it relevant to A-level Sociology?

    This work is one of the main studies within the beliefs in society module.

    Weber (1958, first published 1904) argued that in some circumstances religion can cause social change. Religious beliefs may have united protestants in the 1600s but those same beliefs resulted in long term social changes. Moreover, the emergence of capitalism is arguably the most important social change in modern history. 

    This criticises Functionalist and Marxist theories of religion which argue that religion prevents social change. 

    Weber’s theory also criticises Marx’s theory that religion is shaped by economic factors. In Weber’s theory the reverse happens: the beliefs of protestantism laid the foundations for the capitalist economic system. 

    Weber’s theory is also a good example of social action theory. We can only understand why capitalism emerged by understanding the world view of protestants 400 years ago. We need to understand their religious motives and beliefs to understand capitalism.

    Sources

    John Calvin Image.

    Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism book cover.

  • Sociological Perspectives – Key Supporting Evidence

    Below are a few quantitative and qualitative sources (case studies and statistics) that can be used to illustrate aspects of the main perspectives within A-level sociology – Functionalism, Marxism, Feminism, Social Action Theory and Post and Late Modernism

    Functionalism

    • Bruce Parry: participant observation with ‘The Tribe’
    • Educating Yorkshire
    • Official statistics show declining family Size
    • Cross national statistics – positive correlation between economic development and social development
    • Official statistics – the positive correlation between truancy and crime
    • The Cambridge study in delinquency and development

    Marxism

    • The correlation between increasing neoliberal policies and increasing global inequality
    • Official statistics show a positive correlation between material deprivation and underachievement in education
    • Official Statistics show an increase in childhood obesity, suggesting a link between advertising, pester power and poor child health
    • Case studies of the huge economic and social costs of corporate crime: Enron, Bhopal
    • Case studies of exploitation in the developing world. E.g. Ship breaking in Bangladesh
    • Case studies of elite criminals not being punished for their crimes – e.g. Mark Ashley of Sports Direct

    Feminism

    • Official Statistics on gender equality and empowerment – no country on earth has gender equality
    • Statistics on the Domestic Division of Labour show that women spend twice as long on domestic chores as men
    • Official statistics on domestic violence show that ¼ women are victims in their lifetimes, more than men
    • A range of qualitative evidence from the Everyday Sexism Project
    • Statistics on gender and subject choice – 97% of hairdressing apprenticeships = female….
    • The prevalence of pornography and prostitution and their links with sex trafficking

    Social Action Theory

    • Life-histories and Facebook profiles reveal complex and diverse family structures
    • Rosenthal and Jacobsen’s field experiment showing the self- fulfilling prophecy
    • Jock Young’s research on the drug takers
    • Self-report studies demonstrating that official crime stats are socially constructed
    • The fact that Gok Wan is famous
    • Max Weber’s Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

    Postmodernism

    • Judith Stacey: The Divorce Extended Family: show complex family structures
    • My Monkey-Baby
    • Research studies on the importance of identity in education – e.g. Carolyn Jackson and the Ladettes
    • Stan Cohen’s research on the Mods and Rockers
    • The happy pierced prostitute who has a client who shoves golf-balls up his ass
    • Vanilla vloggers such as Zoella

    Late Modernism

    • Official Statistics on growing global problems such as climate change, global crime and migration
    • The increase in New Social Movements such as the Green Movement
    • Jock Young – The Vertigo of Late Modernity
    • The fact that many nation states have nuclear weapons
    • The high global expenditure on the military
    • The positive correlation between educational achievement and income – nationally and globally

  • Giddens’ Structuration Theory – A Summary

    Social Structure is also only ever the outcomes of practices which have previously happened, and it makes practices possible (the duality of structure), and it is not separate from action.

    Giddens rejects Positivism because of its mistaken search for the general laws of social life. Giddens believes that human beings are thoughtful and creative and thus cannot be wholly predicted in advance.

    Marx downgraded the centrality of capitalism to being just one of four pillars of late-modernity along with surveillance, military power and industrialism.

    Giddens draws selectively on a wide range of action theories, including Goffman, to argue that individuals always have some form of agency to transform a situation; even slaves have the capacity to act in different ways.

    Practices always have the possibility of changing, and we can never guarantee that they will be reproduced, and one of the key features of late modern (compared to traditional) societies, is that there are more transformations in a shorter period of time.

    He sees actors as using knowledge to engage in practical action, thus society is consciously reproduced (or transformed) in every social encounter.

    However – ‘the realm of human agency is bounded’ for the ‘constitution of society is a skilled accomplishment of its members, but one that does not take place under conditions that are wholly intended or wholly comprehended by them’. (1976). For Giddens – people make society but with resources and ‘practices’ inherited from the past.

    Structure for Giddens is not something which exists outside of the individual, but just patterns of practices. As practices change so does structure, and vice-versa.

    Most of our practices take place at the level of practical consciousness, where we just act without thinking about it, however sometimes we operate at the level of ‘discursive consciousness’ – where we reflect on how we did things, but sometimes we find it difficult to talk about – here the example is given of footballers finding it difficult to describe how to play a game of football, they just know how to do it, when they doing it.

    Practical consciousness is informed by ‘Mutual knowledge’ – taken for granted knowledge about how to act, which is based around ‘rules’ about the right and wrong way to do things. Rules persist among large groups of people and are lodged in agents’ heads in ‘memory traces’ (similar to Bourdieu’s ideas on socialisation and the habitus).

    When agents are engaged in practices they draw on resources – there are two kinds – authoritative ones (status) and allocative ones (basically money and stuff) – an agent’s capacity to carry out their practices is influenced by their access to resources (similar to Bourdieu’s ideas about ‘skilled’ players of the game).

    Giddens understands social institutions (such as family, and economic arrangements) as practices which have become routinized, carried out by a majority of agents across time and space. A social institution only exists because several individuals constantly make it over and over again.

    Social Structure is also only ever the outcomes of practices which have previously happened, and it makes practices possible (the duality of structure), and it is not separate from action.

    For Giddens social structures do not reproduce themselves… it is always agents and their practices that reproduce structures, depending on circumstances. After all, ‘structure’ is simply made up of rules (in agents’ heads) and resources, which make action possible (Bourdieu claims it is the habitus which makes this possible). Simultaneously, practices create and recreate rules and resources. Therefor structure only exists in practices and in the memory traces in agents’ practical consciousness, and has no existence external to these.

    Sources and signposting

    This post is summarized from Inglis, D (2012) – A Invitation to Social Theory, Polity.

    This material is mainly relevant to the Theory and Methods aspect of A-level sociology.

  • Theory and Methods for A Level Sociology: The Basics

    An overview of theory and methods for second year A level sociology – a very brief overview covering the bare-bones of (1) Positivism and Interpretivism, (2) Is sociology a science?, (3) Sociology and value freedom, (4) Functionalism, (5) Marxism, (6) Feminism, (7) Social action theory, (8) Post and late modernism, (9) Sociology and social policy. 

    The notes below are deliberately designed to be very brief and ‘distraction free’ (and so I have kept the links below to a minimum), if you want more detailed information, much more in depth, you will find links to these on my ‘Social Theories Page‘ which follows the same structure as what is below!

    0-sociological-theories
    Theory and Methods for A Level Sociology

    1.  Positivism and Interpretivism

    • Positivist approaches to social research are quantitative, ‘scientific’, objective.
    • Durkheim’s suicide is an example of a positivist study
    • Interpretivists criticise Positivist’s reliance on statistics (they are socially constructed)
    • Interpretivist approaches to social research = qualitative, empathetic, micro
    • Key example = Douglas’ study of the multiple meanings of suicide.
    • Positivists criticise Interpretivist research because it’s too subjective, not authoritative.

    2. Is Sociology a science?

    • Key features of the scientific method = the experiment, objectivity, cause and effect relationships, making predictions.
    • Positivism = a scientific approach applied to society – Durkheim’s suicide as an example.
    • Interpretivist criticisms of the scientific method applied to society – humans are conscious actors, they cannot be understood using detached, quantitative methods
    • Criticisms of the ‘objectivity’ of science and the scientific method – Kuhn’s paradigm critique is especially important.
    • Realism – we can still usefully study society as an open system, rather than just focussing on individuals – for example we can still make general predictions about social behaviour based on statistical trends, even if we can’t predict exactly what that action will be or who, specifically will do what.
    • Postmodern views of science – the idea that ‘truth’ is no longer possible.

    3. Can Sociology be value free?

    • Values = people’s own subjective beliefs and opinions. If social research is value free then it means that it is free of the personal biases of the researcher.
    • Positivism – Claimed that sociology could be value free using scientific methods which meant the researcher was as detached as possible.
    • Interpretivists criticise this – values creep into the quantitative research process – through the social construction of statistics for example.
    • Moreover – Interpretivists say we need to understand people’s values to understand how they act! However, it is harder to remain value free when doing qualitative research.
    • Weber argued that we could collect objective date on people’s values but we needed to be explicit about our own values all the way through the research process.
    • Some sociologists criticise ‘institutional sociology’ for being limited in scope, and argue we need a political, explicitly value laden sociology to counter-balance this.
    • For example Howard Becker argued sociologists should take the side of the underdog and give them a voice – this is an explicitly value-laden sociology
    • Marxist and Feminist sociology is also value laden in its choice of research topic – Sociology should be aimed at achieving political
    • Postmodernists believe objective knowledge is not possible, so all we can do is deconstruct knowledge, and criticise people who claim to have value-free, objective knowledge.
    • Late Modernists such as Giddens criticise at least one aspect of postmodernism – there are still objective social problems, such as global warming, migration, global inequality, which sociology needs to focus on.
    • However, constructing objective knowledge is a problem in contemporary sociology because knowledge is reflexive – it is part of the society it comes from – thus we need to careful to make our own value and opinions clear throughout the research process so that others can make an informed judgement about the usefulness of our research. That’s just the way it is!

    4. Functionalism

    • Durkheim’s functionalism – social facts and anomie
    • Parson’s systems theory – the organic analogy and social evolution
    • Merton’s internal critique of functionalism – latent and manifest functions
    • Functionalism applied to the family – Murdock’s four universal functions, Parson’s functional fit theory and the two irreducible functions of the family – socialisation and the stabilisation of adult personalities
    • Functionalism applied to education – meritocracy, social solidarity, school as a bridge between home and society (particularistic and universalistic values)
    • Functionalism applied to Crime and Deviance – Durkheim’s three positive functions of crime, strain theory, consensus subcultural theories.
    • Functionalism and Modernisation Theory – Parson’s traditional and modern values and the evolutionary model of society
    • Functionalism and research methods – Durkheim’s Positivist approach to suicide

    5. Marxism

    • Karl Marx – the basics: bourgeoisie and proletariat, exploitation, alienation, false consciousness, revolution.
    • Gramsci’s humanistic Marxism – hegemony, dual consciousness and organic intellectuals
    • Althusser’s structuralist Marxism – the repressive state apparatus.
    • Marxism applied to the Family – capitalism, private property and the family, The family as a safe haven, ideological functions, also see Marxist Feminism
    • Marxism applied to education – the ideological state apparatus, reproduction of class inequality, legitimation of class inequality, correspondence principle
    • Marxism applied to Crime and Deviance – • Private Property and Crime, The costs of Corporate Crime, Selective Law Enforcement, Criminogenic Capitalism (“Dog Eat Dog” Society)
    • Marxism applied to Global Development – Colonialism and Slavery, The Modern World System, Unfair trade rules, TNC exploitation
    • Marxism and Research Methods – Social Class, Comparative Analysis, Objectivity/ Critical Research.

    6. Feminisms

    • Liberal Feminism – does not seek revolutionary changes: they want changes to take place within the existing structure; the creation of equal opportunities is the main aim of liberal feminists – e.g. the Sex Discrimination Act and the Equal Pay Act
    • Marxist Feminism – capitalism rather than patriarchy is the principal source of women’s oppression, and capitalists as the main beneficiaries, through the housewife role for example; overthrowing capitalism remains the main objective.
    • Radical Feminism – Society is patriarchal, dominated and ruled by men – men are the ruling class, and women the subject class. Rape, violence and pornography some of the key tools through which men control women; separatism can be part of the solution.
    • Difference Feminism – women are not a homogenous group, they experience disadvantage in different ways.
    • Postmodern Feminism – critiqued preceding Feminist theory as being part of the masculinist Enlightenment Project; concerned with language (discourses) and the relationship between power and knowledge rather than ‘politics and opportunities‘.

    7. Social Action Theory

    • Max Weber: Verstehen, and Social Change – observation alone is not enough to understand human action, we need empathetic understanding. Gaining Verstehen is the main point of Sociology, e.g. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism).
    • Symbolic Interactionism – people’s self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them (the looking glass self); need to understand meanings to understanding actions;  social roles are not specific or fixed; they can be interpreted in various different ways.
    • Goffman’s Dramaturgical Theory – People are actors on a ‘social stage’ who actively create an impression of themselves
    • Labelling Theory – the definitions (meanings) people impose on situations or on other people can have real consequences (even if those definitions are not based in reality)

    8. Post Modernism and Late Modernism

    Postmodernism

    • Economy and Politics = Industrial economies, jobs for life; Nation State, most people vote and are in trades unions; Organised/ Heavy Capitalism and the Welfare State
    • Society/ Culture reflects the underlying class and patriarchal structures; Nuclear family the norm, marriage for life; Identities shaped/ constrained by class position/ sex; Media – one way communication, reflects ‘reality’
    • Knowledge – The Enlightenment – Science/ Objective Knowledge/ Truth and Progress
    • Sociology – Positivism/ Functionalism – doing research to find how societies function and gradually building a better world; Marxism/ Feminism –emancipation.

    Late Modernism

    • Economy/ Politics  = Post-Industrial, service sector, portfolio workers and consumption is central; Declining power of the Nation State; Disorganised Capitalism/ Liquid Capitalism (Bauman)
    • Society/ Culture – Culture is free from structure – it is more Diverse and Fragmented ; Relationships more diverse; More Individual Freedom to shape identities; Media – more global, two- way, hyperreality (Baudrillard)
    • Knowledge – Critique of the Enlightenment; Incredulity towards Metanarratives (Lyotard)
    • Sociology – Narrative histories; Deconstruction (Lyotard) and Destabilising Theory.

    9. Sociology and social policy

    • Intro – Social policy = things the government does to steer society in some way. Examples include taxation which affects wealth distribution, various education policies and policies about how to tackle crime
    • There are several reasons why governments may ignore certain findings of research – e.g. lack of money; Marxists and Feminists believe governments generally have an ideological bias which mean they ignore certain research findings.
    • Positivists believe researchers should collect objective knowledge to assess the impact of social policies and to help introduce new policies
    • Social Democratic Perspectives generally agree with the above.
    • The New Right and Neoliberals – have had most influence on social policy recently – e.g. The education system/ crime policy and in International Development
    • Marxist approaches to social policy – prefer policies which favour the redistribution of wealth and promote equality of opportunity, such as the abolition of private schools.
    • Feminist approaches to social policy – prefer policies which emphasis gender equality, such as the Paternity Act.
    • Postmodernists focus on deconstruction rather than social policies
    • Late Modernists emphasise the importance and challenges of developing and evaluating social policies in an age of globalisation.

    Theory and Methods A Level Sociology Revision Bundle 

    If you like this sort of thing, then you might like my Theory and Methods Revision Bundle – specifically designed to get students through the theory and methods sections of  A level sociology papers 1 and 3.

    Contents include:

    • 74 pages of revision notes
    • 15 mind maps on various topics within theory and methods
    • Five theory and methods essays
    • ‘How to write methods in context essays’.

    Related Posts/ Find out More

    Please see my ‘Social Theories Page‘ For more links to a whole range of posts – both summary and in depth on various social theories relevant to both A level sociology and beyond!

    Please click here to return to the homepage – ReviseSociology.com

    Sources Used 

    The content in this post has been derived from the four major ‘A’ Level sociology text books and the AQA specification.

  • Max Weber’s Social Action Theory

    Max Weber (1864-1920) was one of the founding fathers of Sociology. Weber saw both structural and action approaches as necessary to developing a full understanding of society and social change.

    For the purposes of A level Sociology we can reduce Weber’s extensive contribution to Sociology to three things:

    Max Weber: Three Key Points

    • Firstly he argued that ‘Verstehen’ or empathatic understanding is crucial to understanding human action and social change, a point which he emphasised in his classic study ‘The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism’;
    • secondly, he believed we could make generalisations about the basic types of motivation for human action (there are four basic types) and
    • thirdly, he still argued that structure shaped human action, because certain societies or groups encourage certain general types of motivation (but within these general types, there is a lot of variation possible).

    This final point can be illustrated by a quote from one of his most important works ‘Economy and Society’, first published in the 1920s, in which he said ‘Sociology is a science concerning itself with interpretive understanding of social action and thereby with a causal explanation of its course and consequences.’

    max_weber
    Max Weber – NOT a happy bunny

    Social Action and Verstehen

    Weber argued that before the cause of an action could be ascertained you had to understand the meaning attached to it by the individual. He distinguished between two types of understanding.

    First he referred to Aktuelles Verstehen – or direct observational understanding, where you just observe what people are doing. For example, it is possible to observe what people are doing – for example, you can observe someone chopping wood, or you can even ascertain (with reasonable certainty) someone’s emotional state from their body language or facial expression. However, observational understanding alone is not sufficient to explain social action.

    The second type of understanding is Eklarendes Verstehen – or Empathetic Understanding – in which sociologists must try to understand the meaning of an act in terms of the motives that have given rise to it. This type of understanding would require you to find out why someone is chopping wood – Are they doing it because they need the firewood, are they just clearing a forest as part of their job, are they working off anger, just doing it because they enjoy it? To achieve this Weber argued that you had to get into the shoes of people doing the activity.

    The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

    protestant-ethic

    In this famous work, Weber argued that a set of religious ideas were responsible for the emergence of Capitalism in Northern Europe in the 16-17th century. Weber argued that we need to understand these ideas and how they made people think about themselves in order to understand the emergence of Capitalism. (NB The emergence of Capitalism is one the most significant social changes in human history)

    The video below, from the School of Life, offers a useful summary of Max Weber’s ideas about the emergence of Capitalism

    Weber’s Four Types of Action (and types of society)

    Max Weber didn’t just believe that individuals shape society – societies encourage certain types of motive for action – for example, the religion of Calvinism encouraged people to save money, which eventually led to capitalism

    Weber believes that there are four ideal types of social actions. Ideal types are used as a tool to look at real cases and compare them to the ideal types to see where they fall. No social action is purely just one of the four types.

    1. Traditional Social Action: actions controlled by traditions, “the way it has always been done”
    2. Affective Social Action: actions determined by one’s specific affections and emotional state, you do not think about the consequences
    3. Value Rational Social Action: actions that are determined by a conscious belief in the inherent value of a type of behavior (ex: religion)
    4. Instrumental-Rational Social Action: actions that are carried out to achieve a certain goal, you do something because it leads to a result

    To illustrate these different types of action consider someone “going to school” in terms of these four ideal types: Traditionally, one may attend college because her grandparents, parents, aunts, and uncles have as well. They wish to continue the family tradition and continue with college as well. When relating to affective, one may go to school just because they enjoy learning. They love going to college whether or not it will make them broke. With value rational, one may attend college because it’s a part of his/her religion that everyone must receive the proper education. Therefore, this person attends college for that reason only. Finally, one may go to college because he/she may want an amazing job in the future and in order to get that job, he/she needs a college degree.

    Max Weber was particularly interested in the later of these – he believed that modern societies encouraged ‘Instrumental-Action’ – that is we are encouraged to do things in the most efficient way (e.g. driving to work) rather than thinking about whether driving to work is the right thing to do (which would be value-rational action.

    Weber believed that modern societies were obsessed with efficiency – modernizing and getting things done, such that questions of ethics, affection and tradition were brushed to one side – this has the consequence of making people miserable and leading to enormous social problems. Weber was actually very depressed about this and had a mental breakdown towards the end of his life.

    Evaluations of Max Weber’s Social Action Theory

    • Positive – He recognized that we need to understand individual meanings to understand how societies change (unlike Marxism)
    • Positive – The idea that individual motives can lead to huge structural level changes such as the emergence of Capitalism is especially interesting!
    • Negative – Still too much focus on society shaping the individual – symbolic interactionism argues that individuals have more freedom to shape their identities.
    • Negative – there might well be more types of motivation than just four types
    • Negative – his theory of the emergence of capitalism has been criticized as there is evidence of some forms of capitalism existing BEFORE Protestantism.

    Sign Posting

    Max Weber’s Action Theory is a key social theory usually studies as part of the theory and methods topic for second year sociology.

    For an overview of Action theories more generally, including interactionism and labelling theory please see this post which summarises social action theories.

    Max Weber’s work is also the basis of the ‘Interpretivism’ part of Positivism versus Interpretivism.

    Sources:

    • Haralambos and Holborne: Sociology Themes and Perspectives
    • Max Weber: Economy and Society.

  • Social Action Theories for Second Year A Level Sociology – A Summary

    We can divide sociological theories into two broad types: structural and action theories.

    Functionalism, Marxism and Feminism are all structural theories, are interested in ‘society as a whole’ and ask ‘societal level questions’ such as ‘what functions does education perform for society and the individual’? (Functionalism) or ‘why does injustice exist’ (Marxism and Feminism)? They seek to understand the actions of individuals by looking at the structure of wider society and generally believe that ‘society shapes the individual’.

    Interpretivism.png

    Sociologists who adopt social action perspectives usually reject the view that society has a clear structure that directs individuals to behave in certain ways. Some social action theorists do not deny the existence of a social structure, but see this structure as rising out of the action of individual; others argue that there is no such thing as a social structure. For the purposes of Second Year sociology you need to know about four Action Theories – all of which have slightly different views on the relationship between social structure and social actions.

    Max Weber is generally regarded as the founder of social action theory – he believed that we need to develop an empathetic understanding to uncover the personal meanings and motives individuals give to their own actions, and that this was crucial to understanding how social structures changed over time. However, he also believed that we could make generalisations about types of motive people had and that these general motivations were influenced by the wider society – thus he is half way between structure and action theory, rather than a pure ‘social action’ theorist.

    George Herbert Mead developed ‘Symbolic Interactionism’, and he put more emphasis on the role of the active individual than Weber.

    For Mead, there is still a society ‘out there’ which constrains human action, in the sense that there are a number of pre-existing social roles which people have to take on in order to get by in society. However, individuals have considerable freedom to shape their identities within and between these social roles.

    Mead also argued that everything about society is open to multiple interpretations and meanings – the same institutions, social roles and individual-actions can mean very different things to different people. For Mead, individuals are constantly interpreting and re-interpreting each other’s ‘symbolic actions’ – and this is an ongoing, complex process – if we want to understand human action we need to understand the micro-details of how people interpret other people’s actions, and how their re-actions are in turn re-interpreted and so on.

    In order to truly understand why people act in the way that they do, we need to understand people’s ‘self-concept’ – their identities, there ideas about the ‘generalised other’ (society) and micro-interpretations.

    Erving Goffman’s developed Mead’s work in his Dramaturgical theory of social action – he argued that the most appropriate way to understand people is to view them as if they are actors on a stage – people use props (such as clothes and body-language) to project idealised images of themselves to a social audience – people have multiple identities which change according to the social setting and the audience they find themselves performing in front of. As well as the social world, the front stage, we all have backstage areas (mostly the home) where we prepare for our social performances, and reflect on how good or bad our performances have been, and plan to change them accordingly. For Goffman, individuals are very active and manipulative, and we may never actually get to see people’s real identities unless we spend considerable time with them during their day to day lives.

    Labelling Theory focuses on how the definitions (meanings) people impose on situations or on other people can have real consequences (even if those definitions are not based in reality) – and argues that people in power generally have more ability to impose their definitions on situations than the powerless. For example, parents, teachers and the police generally have more power to make labels stick and make these labels have consequences compared to working class youths. Labelling theory criticises both Mead and Goffman, arguing that while we need to look at micro-level interactions and meanings to examine labelling, we still need to understand where people are located in the power-structure of society to fully understand the process of labeling and identity construction.

    Sources

    Most posts are adapted from standard degree and ‘A’ Level text books such as Haralambos and Holborn (2013) Sociology Themes and Perspectives